Bakgrund: I Sverige definieras begreppet upprepade missfall som att en kvinna har fått tre eller flera missfall i följd och det uppskattas drabba ca en procent av världens alla par i fertil ålder. Då detta är en liten grupp kvinnor kan det vara svårt för den drabbade kvinnan att veta var hon kan vända sig med sina funderingar och vad hon har rätt till för vidare hjälp. Vid flera upprepade missfall växer behovet av att få svar på vad som sker och varför samtidigt som behovet av stöd och förståelse från sina närstående blir större. Tillgången till utredning och behandling ser olika ut men med hjälp från barnmorskans och vårdens sida kan lämplig planering utifrån kvinnan situation utvecklas. Syfte: Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka kvinnans upplevelse av upprepade missfall och belysa hennes behov under och tiden efter missfallet. Metod: Metoden för denna uppsats var en kvalitativ metasyntes med metaetnografisk analysmetod. Totalt kvalitetsgranskades 29 artiklar varav 16 gick igenom kvalitetsgranskningen och sammanställdes till ett resultat. Resultat: Sju kategorier med nyckelbegrepp bildades. Kategorierna som identifierades var missfallsprocessen, utrymme för sorg, undvikande beteende, partnerrollen, socialt stöd, förväntningar på vården och att bli gravid igen. Slutsats: Då alla kvinnor är olika varierar upplevelsen och behoven vid en missfallsprocess. Genom att ha kunskap om vad kvinnan går igenom både fysiskt- och psykiskt vid upprepade missfall bidrar det till en ökad förståelse för vad kvinnan behöver, både från sin omgivning men även från vårdens sida. Klinisk tillämpbarhet: Studien skulle kunna bidra till att utforska möjligheten att ändra på kriterierna för utredning vid upprepade missfall. Studien skulle även kunna leda till en förbättring av kunskapsläget både för individen, samhället och vården gällande hur bemötandet av denna grupp av kvinnor ser ut. Barnmorskor kan som yrkesgrupp stödja och hjälpa denna grupp kvinnor genom uppföljning i samband med att de kommer i kontakt med barnmorskemottagningen för att meddela att graviditeten har slutat i ännu ett missfall. Vidare kan etableringen av stödgrupper inom vården vara ett bra stöd för kvinnor som är med om upprepade missfall och dessa grupper skulle potentiellt ledas och samordnas av en barnmorska som innehar kompetens inom området upprepade missfall. / Background: In Sweden, the concept of recurrent miscarriage is defined as a woman having three or more miscarriages in succession and it is estimated to affect about one percent of all couples of childbearing age worldwide. Since this is a small group of women, it can be difficult for the effected woman to know where she can turn with her thoughts and what she is entitled to regarding further help. After enduring multiple recurrent miscarriages, the need to get some answers and at the same time the need to receive support and understanding from their close surroundings increases. The access to further investigation and treatment is different depending on where you are but with some help from a midwife and other healthcare providers, an appropriate plan based on the woman's situation can be developed. Purpose: The aim of this essay was to investigate the experiences of women who have endured recurrent miscarriages and their further needs that occurred during and the time after the miscarriage. Methods: The method used in this essay was a qualitative metasynthesis with metaethnographic analysis method. In total, 29 articles were collected of which 16 of them went through the quality review and were compiled to a result. Results: seven categories containing of key concepts were formed. The categories identified were the process of miscarrying, room for griefing, avoiding behavior, the partners role, social support, expectations of the healthcare and becoming pregnant again. Conclusion: Due to the fact that all women are different, the experiences and needs during a miscarrying process varies. By having the knowledge of what the woman goes through both physically and mentally during recurrent miscarriages, it contributes to a greater understanding of what the woman needs, both from her surroundings but also from the healthcare. Clinical applicability: This essay could help to explore the possibilities of modifying the criteria for an investigation of recurrent miscarriages. The essay could also lead to improvement of the knowledge situation for the individual, the society and the care providers regarding how this group of women wants to be treated. Midwives as a profession could help to support this group of women by initiating contact with the women when or after she has contacted the midwife clinic to announce another pregnancy loss. Furthermore, the establishment of support groups for women with recurrent miscarriages could be helpful and supportive for these women. The support groups could potentially be coordinated by a midwife with specific knowledge about recurrent miscarriage.

Background: Involuntary childlessness and infertility affect a large group of people and WHO calls it a global public health issue. Donated gametes can be used when a pregnancy is not achieved. Embryo donation involves the full genetic material of the donating couple and embryo donation for reproductive purposes are often associated with many emotional, ethical, legal and psychosocial aspects. Aim: The aim of the study was to examine views on embryo donation for reproductive purposes among couples with experience of cryopreserved embryos. Methods: A literature review was conducted in order to answer the aim. Two databases (PubMed and Web of Science) were used to identify relevant qualitative literature. A smaller search on Google Scholar was also included. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were pre-determined in order to limit which studies to include. Results: A total of 20 studies were included in the results. The results show that there are different views towards the status of the human embryo, views towards the genetic link, information sharing and screening, views towards the selection of recipients, views towards the contact and relationship between donors, recipients and offspring, and views towards the decision-making and whether to donate surplus embryos or not. Conclusion: The multiple understandings of the status of the human embryo emphasizes the complex nature of human embryos and may explain couples’ views on embryo donation for reproductive purposes. It has also the potential to explain what couples decide to do with their surplus embryos. The interests of the receiving couple, the donors, the future child, and the society should continuously be assessed and balanced when society regulates ART and embryo donation. / Bakgrund: Ofrivillig barnlöshet och infertilitet påverkar många människor och WHO kallar det ett globalt folkhälsoproblem. Donerade könsceller kan användas när en graviditet inte kan uppnås. Vid embryodonation innebär det att det donerande paret har full genetisk koppling till embryot och embryodonation för reproduktiva syften associeras ofta med många emotionella, etiska, rättsliga och psykosociala aspekter. Syfte: Syftet med studien var att undersöka synen på embryodonation för reproduktiva ändamål hos par med erfarenhet av frysförvarade embryon. Metod: En allmän litteraturstudie genomfördes för att besvara syftet. Två databaser (PubMed och Web of Science) användes för att identifiera relevanta kvalitativa studier. En mindre sökning utfördes även i Google Scholar. Inklusions- och exklusionskriterier bestämdes i förväg för att begränsa vilka studier som skulle ingå. Resultat: Totalt inkluderades 20 artiklar i resultatet. Resultatet visar att det finns olika uppfattningar om det mänskliga embryots status, om den genetiska kopplingen, informationsutbyte och screening, om synen på kontakt och relationen mellan donatorer, mottagare och avkomma samt synen på beslutsfattandet och om överskott av embryon ska doneras eller inte. Slutsats: De många uppfattningarna om det mänskliga embryots status betonar den komplexa karaktären hos det mänskliga embryot och kan förklara parens syn på embryodonation för reproduktiva ändamål. Det har också potential att förklara vad par väljer att göra med sina överskott av embryon. Det mottagande parets, donatorernas, det framtida barnets och samhällets intressen bör kontinuerligt bedömas och balanseras när samhället reglerar ART och embryodonation.

Syftet med studien var att undersöka ofrivillig ensamhet i den svenska befolkningen utifrån faktorer som tidigare har visat sig associerade med oönskad ensamhet, nämligen ålder, inkomst, civilstånd, kön, antal hushållsmedlemmar och även storleken på orten där personen bor. Upplevelsen av ensamhet före och under coronapandemin har också studerats. Totalt har 196 personer svarat på ett frågeformulär som mäter de tidigare nämnda faktorerna och ensamhet enligt UCLA-ensamhetsindex. Resultaten visar att ensamheten är störst bland den yngre populationen och bland dem med lägst inkomst. Resultaten påvisade även att storstadsbor upplever sig mindre ensamma än de som bor i mindre orter. Studien kunde inte visa att coronapandemin haft någon inverkan på ensamhetsupplevelsen. Det fanns ingen statistiskt signifikant skillnad i ensamhet utifrån kön, civilstånd eller antal medlemmar i hushållet. Slutsatsen som kan dras från studien är att inkomst, ålder och storleken på orten där individen bor har betydelse för ofrivillig ensamhet. / The purpose of the present study was to examine the involuntary loneliness in the Swedish population considering factors that previously have been shown to be associated, i.e. age, income, civil status, gender, number of household members and size of the locality where the individual lives. Even the experienced level of loneliness before and during the coronavirus pandemics has been studied. A total of 196 individuals have responded to a questionnaire aimed to measure the previously named factors as well as the loneliness index according to the UCLA Loneliness Scale. The results show that involuntary loneliness is more widespread among younger individuals and among those with lowest incomes. The results also show that people living in Sweden's largest localities feel less lonely than those living in smaller localities. The current study could not conclude that the coronavirus pandemic has had any effect on loneliness. No statistically significant differences in loneliness have been found when it comes to gender, civil status or number of members in the household. Overall, it can be concluded that income, age and the size of the locality where the individual lives are significant in the experience of involuntary loneliness.

Background: The aim with this study is to explore how elderly care homes in Sweden plan activities in order to counteract the feeling of perceived involuntary loneliness for its elderly service users.  Method: The study is based on collected qualitative data that centers around eight semi-structured interviews with elderly care homes unit managers (SÄBO).  The result: The interviewees perceived involuntary loneliness differently depending on the elderly individual's perspective and the acceptance of their new life process. The range of activities are aimed to activate and socialize the elderly and implicitly counteract involuntary loneliness. The interviewees hint that it is often a matter of profound loneliness rooted in life’s final phase, identified as existential loneliness – a feeling of being separated from other people and the universe itself. Conclusion: The study indicates that there are multiple hues of loneliness such as feelings of existential loneliness, and the effects of the elderly’s changed life situation. The interviewees express a want for a counsellor for the elderly, with whom they can talk about life and death.  Keywords: elderly, elderly homes, involuntary loneliness, activities, gerotranscendence, ageism, person-centered care. / Bakgrund: Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka hur äldreboenden i Sverige samordnar aktiviteter för att motverka den upplevda ofrivilliga ensamheten bland de äldre brukarna.  Metod: Studiens insamlade kvalitativa data baseras på åtta semi-strukturerade intervjuer med enhetschefer på särskilt boende (SÄBO).  Resultatet: Intervjupersonerna uppfattade ofrivillig ensamhet olika beroende på den äldre individens perspektiv och acceptans av deras nya livsprocess. Aktivitetsutbudet syftar till att aktivera och socialisera de äldre och implicit motverka ofrivillig ensamhet. Intervjupersonerna antyder att det ofta handlar om djupgående ensamhet rotad i livets slutfas som identifieras som existentiell ensamhet – en känsla av att vara separerad från andra människor och själva universum.  Slutsats: Undersökningen indikerar att det finns flera nyanser av ensamhet, så som känslor av existentiell ensamhet och effekterna av de äldres förändrade livssituation. Intervjupersonerna uttrycker en önskan om en äldre-kurator, med vilken de äldre kan prata med om livet och döden. Nyckelord: äldre, särskilt boende, ofrivillig ensamhet, aktiviteter, gerotranscendens, ålderism, personcentrerad vård.

Syftet med studien är att undersöka om och i så fall hur enhetschefer på vård- och omsorgsboenden beaktar äldre människors sociala välbefinnande samt redogöra för vad enhetschefer i deras chefsroll uppmärksammar som viktigt för de äldres sociala välbefinnande. Frågeställningarna berör hur enhetschefer på vård- och omsorgsboenden arbetar för att främja de äldres sociala välbefinnande och vilka utmaningar avseende de äldres sociala välbefinnande som enhetschefer på vård- och omsorgsboenden identifierar. Studien utgår från ett kvalitativt metodval och resultatet har samlats in genom semistrukturerade intervjuer med enhetschefer på vård- och omsorgsboenden i en mellanstor kommun i Sverige. Studiens resultat belyser hur enhetschefer på vård- och omsorgsboenden arbetar med att främja de äldres sociala välbefinnande genom att skapa förutsättningar för trygghet, gemenskap och självbestämmande. Enhetscheferna identifierar utmaningar förenade med de äldres sociala välbefinnande och lyfter att hitta arbetssätt för att bidra till minskad ofrivillig ensamhet hos de äldre och bistå med stöd för att tillgodose de äldres individuella behov och öka deltagandet på de sociala aktiviteterna. / The purpose of this study is to investigate whether, and if so how, unit managers at nursing homes take the social well-being of older people into account and describe what managers in their position recognize as important for the social well-being of the elderly. The research questions are based on how unit managers at nursing homes work to promote the social well-being of the elderly, and which challenges regarding the social well-being of the elderly that unit managers at nursing homes identify. The study is based on a qualitative choice of method and the results have been collected through semi-structured interviews with unit managers at nursing homes in a medium-sized municipality in Sweden. The study's results highlight how unit managers at nursing homes work to promote the social well-being of the elderly by creating conditions for security, community and self-determination. The unit managers identify challenges associated with the social well-being of the elderly and find ways of working to contribute to reducing involuntary loneliness among the elderly.  The unit managers also assist with support to meet the individual needs of the elderly and increase participation in social activities.

Ofrivillig ensamhet hos äldre är ett problem som kan orsaka ohälsa, lidande och öka risken att dö i förtid. I hemsjukvården möter distriktssköterskan ofta patienter som erfar ofrivillig ensamhet. Vårdpersonal kan genom sitt bemötande orsaka känslor av ensamhet hos dem de vårdar. Genom att beskriva fenomenet ur distriktssköterskans perspektiv förväntas kunskapen öka, vilket i sin tur kan leda till att patienterna får en bättre vård. Syftet med studien var att beskriva distriktssköterskans upplevelse av mötet med äldre patienter inom hemsjukvård som erfar ofrivillig ensamhet. Studien genomfördes genom semistrukturerade intervjuer med sex distriktssköterskor i hemsjukvården. Materialet tolkades med hjälp av kvalitativ innehållsanalys med ett induktivt tillvägagångssätt. Resultatet presenteras utifrån kategorierna: Det ofrivilliga lidandet, Känslors betydelse och Nycklar till det vårdande mötet. Distriktssköterskornas möte med ofrivilligt ensamma patienter väcker känslor som får dem att vilja hjälpa den äldre människan bakom ensamheten. Samtalet har stor betydelse i mötet med ofrivilligt ensamma äldre och kan lindra deras lidande. Öppenhet, kunskap och att se hela människan är viktigt i uppbyggnaden av relationen. Distriktssköterskorna upplever svårigheter i mötet med äldre ofrivilligt ensamma patienter och att dessa människor får för lite hjälp och behöver mer stöd. Slutsatserna är att avsaknad av egenskaper som lyhördhet, öppenhet och respekt hindrar vårdaren att få tillgång till patientens livsvärld och kunna vara vårdande. För att hjälpa ofrivilligt ensamma patienter är tiden, samtalet och kunskap avgörande i det vårdande mötet. / Involuntary loneliness in elderly people is a problem that can cause ill health, suffering and increase the risk of premature death. In home health care, the district nurse often encounters patients who experience involuntary loneliness. Nursing staff can, through their treatment, cause feelings of loneliness in those they care for. By describing the phenomenon from the district nurse's perspective, knowledge is expected to increase, which in turn can lead to patients receiving better care. The purpose of the study was to describe the district nurse's experience of the meeting with elderly patients in home health care who experience involuntary loneliness. The study was conducted through semi-structured interviews with six district nurses in home health care. The material was interpreted using qualitative content analysis with an inductive approach. The results are presented based on the categories: Involuntary suffering, The importance of feelings and Keys to the caring encounter. The district nurses' meeting with involuntarily lonely patients arouses emotions that make them want to help the elderly person behind the loneliness. The conversation is of great importance in the meeting with involuntarily lonely elderly people and can alleviate their suffering. Openness, knowledge and seeing the whole person are important in building the relationship. The district nurses experience difficulties in meeting elderly patients who are involuntarily alone and that these people receive too little help and need more support. The conclusions are that a lack of qualities such as responsiveness, openness and respect prevents the carer from gaining access to the patient's life world and being able to care. To help involuntarily lonely patients, time, conversation and knowledge are crucial in the caring encounter.nsamma patienter är tiden, samtalet och kunskap avgörande i det vårdande mötet.

Ofrivillig ensamhet är en tydlig riskfaktor för ohälsa bland brukare och bör utifrån ett folkhälsoperspektiv prioriteras för att främja en god och jämlik hälsa för alla. Hemtjänsten utgör en central roll som är nära knuten till brukarens vardagliga liv och är en viktig aktör för att stödja brukaren i sin unika situation och därigenom minska de negativa upplevelserna av ensamhet.   Syftet med studien är att undersöka hemtjänstpersonals upplevelser av deras arbete mot ofrivillig ensamhet bland brukare de möter i sin yrkesroll. Studien omfattas av sex semistrukturerade intervjuer som analyserats med en manifest innehållsanalys. Samtliga informanter var kvinnor som under undersökningens genomförande arbetade inom kommunal hemtjänst inom Västmanland och Södermanlands län.  De mest framträdande aspekterna i resultatet var de utmaningar som hemtjänstpersonalen upplever i det dagliga arbetet och hur ledning och organisation tycks vara en avgörande faktor för vilken riktning arbetet med hanteringen av ofrivillig ensamhet tar. En annan betydande aspekt i resultatet var de aktiviteter som informanterna lyfte som minskar känslan av ensamhet och som i stället främjar brukarnas sociala samvaro.  Studiens slutsats lyfter att det behövs stärkt prioritering av hantering av ofrivillig ensamhet för att vidare öka förutsättningarna för brukarnas välmående. Det social-ekologiska perspektivet bidrar med en ökad förståelse för hemtjänstens arbete med att motverka ofrivillig ensamhet genom dess påverkan av inre och yttre faktorer som understryker komplexiteten i arbetet. Nyckelord; Brukare, Folkhälsa, Hemtjänst, Ofrivillig ensamhet / Involuntary loneliness is a clear risk factor for ill health among home care recipients and should be prioritized from a public health perspective to promote good and equitable health for all. Home care services have a central role closely tied to the user’s everyday life and is an important actor in supporting the home care recipients in their unique situation, thereby reducing negative experiences of loneliness. The purpose of the study is to investigate home care staff’s experiences in addressing involuntary loneliness among the home care recipients they encounter in their professional roles. The study comprises six semi-structured interviews, which were analyzed using a manifest content analysis. All the participants were women working in municipal home care services in the Västmanland and Södermanland counties of Sweden. The most prominent aspects in the results were the challenges that home care staff experience in their daily work and how management and organization appear to be a crucial factor in determining the direction of work related to addressing involuntary loneliness. Another significant aspect in the results was the activities that the informants highlighted as reducing feelings of loneliness and instead promoting social interaction among home care recipients in various ways.  The study’s conclusion emphasizes the need for enhanced prioritization of addressing involuntary loneliness to further improve the well-being of home care recipients. The social-ecological perspective contributes to a deeper understanding of home care services’ efforts in combating involuntary loneliness by considering both internal and external factors that underscore the complexity of this work. Keywords; Home care, Home care recipient, Involuntary loneliness, Public health

Introduktion: Ofrivillig ensamhet är ett folkhälsoproblem som finns i samtliga socioekonomiska grupper och åldersgrupper världen över. Ofrivillig ensamhet kan ge allvarliga fysiska och psykiska konsekvenser såsom depression och ökad prevalens av suicid bland äldre. I Sverige uppger cirka 23% av personer över 16 år att det lider av ofrivillig ensamhet, i vissa åldersgrupper är siffran än högre. 1177.se är regionernas samlade hälsoportal för vårdinformation i Sverige. Sveriges kommuner använder i stället respektive webbplats för att nå och informera befolkningen. Rapporter visar att en majoritet av svenskar idag använder internet för att söka hälsoinformation. Syfte: Beskriva och analysera information om ofrivillig ensamhet och social gemenskap på Sveriges samlade hälsoportal för regioner, 1177.se och slumpmässigt valda kommuners webbplatser. Metod: En kvalitativ summativ innehållsanalys av information på Sveriges 21 regionernas webbplatser på 1177.se och webbplatser från 30 slumpmässigt utvalda kommuner. Resultat: På 1177.se hade 14% av regionerna information om ofrivillig ensamhet eller social gemenskap. Av kommunerna hade 80% information eller aktiviteter för att motverka ofrivillig ensamhet eller främja social gemenskap. Informationen riktade sig framför allt mot äldre och personer med funktionsvariation. Slutsats: Studien visar på stora skillnader i tillgången till information och inkluderande aktiviteter arrangerade av Sveriges regioner och kommuner gällande ofrivillig ensamhet och främjande av social gemenskap. Studien belyser de gap som finns i form av insatser från både regionerna och kommunerna för att ge adekvat information och aktiviteter för befolkningen för att effektivt bemöta den folkhälsomässiga utmaningen ofrivillig ensamhet är. / Introduction: Loneliness is a public health issue that exists across all socioeconomic groups and age groups worldwide. It can lead to serious physical and psychological consequences such as depression and an increased prevalence of suicide among the elderly. In Sweden, approximately 23% of individuals over the age of 16 report suffering from loneliness, with an even higher percentage in certain age groups. The website 1177.se serves as a combined health portal for regional healthcare information in Sweden, while Swedish municipalities use their respective website to reach and inform their citizens. Reports show that a majority of Swedes now use the internet to seek health information. Aim: To describe and analyze information on loneliness and social community on Sweden's combined health portal for regions, 1177.se, and websites of randomly selected municipalities. Method: A qualitative summative content analysis of information on the websites of Sweden's 21 regions on 1177.se and 30 randomly selected municipalities. Results: On 1177.se, 14% of the regions had information on loneliness or social community. Among the municipalities, 80% had information or activities to counteract loneliness or promote social community. The information was primarily directed towards the elderly and people with disabilities. Conclusion: The study reveals significant disparities in the availability of information and inclusive activities organized by Sweden's regions and municipalities regarding loneliness and the promotion of social community. The study highlights the gaps in efforts by both regions and municipalities to provide adequate information and activities to effectively address the public health challenges of loneliness.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights state that everyone has the right to good health. According to the conventions, the states have obligations to prevent and combat disease, and if necessary, ensure that the conditions for treatment of the disease are appropriate (UDHR 1948, UNCESCR 1966). The broad wording in the conventions on the right to good health includes the right to care of substance use disorders. In the 1960ies the World Health Organization recommended, that people with such disorders should be seen as sick and that the legislation governing such care should be in accordance with special administrative legislations and not criminal legislation. The recommendation indicates WHO:s clear position that persons with substance use disorders primarily should be treated as persons suffering from disease and in need of care, and not primarily as disruptive individuals or criminals who should be disciplined or punished. This applies also to situations when treatment and care cannot be provided on a voluntary basis, but compulsorily. In Swedish context, the most commonly mentioned law in these cases is the social special legislation Law (1988: 870) on care of misusers, special provisions (LVM). Ever since the implementation of LVM in 1982, its legal position as well as application in institutional care has been subject of critical discussions within social work as well as in social science research. Such debate in the Nordic countries has until now mostly been marked by two important limitations. First, most comparisons are restricted to very few countries, e.g. four of the Nordic countries; secondly the notion of involuntary care is often limited to social legislation on compulsory care without taking criminal justice legislation or mental health legislation into account. The present dissertation studies legislations on compulsory commitment to care of persons with substance use problems (CCC), and compares these legislations from a larger number of countries, on global or European levels. This approach makes it possible to explore the great variation in CCC legislation between countries, i.e. type of law (criminal justice, mental health care and social or special legislation),  time limits (maximum duration) as well as levels of ambition, ethical grounds, criteria for admission, and adaption to human and civil rights.  In addition, the comparisons between many countries are used to investigate factors related to different national choices in legislations from country characteristics, e.g. historical and cultural background as well as economic and social conditions, including level and type of welfare distribution. Available datasets from different times permits trend analyses to investigate whether CCC or specific types of such are increasing or decreasing internationally.          Empirical materials: Article I is based on three reports from the WHO on existence of CCC legislation, before the millennium shift, in 90 countries and territories in all populated continents. Articles II and IV are based on own data collection from a survey in 38 European countries. Article III uses a combination of those data and additional information from country reports in scientific and institutional publications in three times of observation during more than 25 years, and including a total of 104 countries. Additional data for Articles I and II are information on various countries' characteristics obtained from different international databases.          Findings based on data from WHO reports at the eve of the millennium show that CCC legislation was very common in the world, since 82 per cent of the 90 countries and territories had such law. Special administrative (“civil”) legislation (mental health or social) was somewhat more prevalent (56 %), but CCC in criminal justice legislation was also frequent and present in half of the countries. The study shows that economically stronger countries in the western world and many of the former communist countries in Eastern Europe, the so-called "first and second worlds" in cold war rhetoric, more often had adapted to the recommendations made by WHO in the 1960ies, with CCC more often regulated in civil legislation. In the so-called "third world" countries, CCC in criminal justice legislation dominated. The new data collection from 38 European countries ten years later confirmed that legislation on CCC is very common, since 74 per cent of the explored countries have some type of legislation. The most common type was now CCC in criminal legislation (45%), although special administrative legislation (mental health or social) was almost equally common (37%). Special administrative legislation on CCC (both acute and rehabilitative), was more common in countries with historic experience of a strong influential temperance movement, and in countries with distribution of health and welfare more directed through the state, while countries with less direct government involvement in distribution of health and welfare and lacking former influence of a strong temperance movement more often had CCC in criminal justice legislation. During all the 25 years period from early 80ies up to 2009, it was more common for countries to have some type of law on CCC than not, although some reduction of CCC legislation is shown, especially during the last decade. But within countries having CCC, more cases are compulsorily committed and for longer time duration. This is related to a global shift from civil CCC to CCC in criminal justice legislation, directly in the opposite direction from what WHO recommended in the 60ies. Changes in CCC legislation are often preceded with national political debate on ethical considerations, and criticisms questioning the efficiency and content of the care provided. Such national debates are frequent with all types of CCC legislation, but ethical considerations seem to be far more common related to special administrative (civil) legislation. National legislations on CCC within Europe should conform to the human and civil rights stipulated in ECHR (1950). There seems, to be some limitations in the procedural rules that should protect persons with misuse or dependence problems from unlawful detentions, regardless type of law. The three types of law differ significantly in terms of criteria for CCC, i.e. the situations in which care may be ensured regardless of consent.        Conclusions: It is more common that societies have legislation on CCC, than not. This applies internationally – in all parts of the world as well as over time, for a period of 25 years, at least. Sweden’s legislative position is not internationally unique; on the contrary, it is quite common. Law on CCC tend to be introduced in times of drug epidemics or when drug-related problems are increasing in a society. Changes in CCC legislation are often preceded by national debates on ethics, content and benefits of such care. These findings here discussed may reflect different concurrent processes. A shift from welfare logic to a moral logic may be understood as more moralization, perhaps due to relative awaking of traditionalism related to religious movements in various parts of the world (Christian, Hindu, Muslim or other). But it may also be understood from more libertarianism that stresses both individual responsibility for one’s welfare and the state´s responsibility to discipline behaviours that inflict negatively on the lives of others. Possibly do these two tendencies work in conjunction to one another. At the same time, however, there is a stronger emphasis on care content within criminal justice CCC, especially in the Anglo-Saxon drug court system. Some shift within Civil CCC is also noticed, i.e. from social to mental health legislation. Thus drug abuse and dependence is increasingly more recognized and managed in the same way as other diseases, i.e. an increased normalization. Since social CCC has been more in focus of research and debates, this may also result in CCC turning into a more hidden praxis, which from ethical perspectives is problematic. The thesis shows that there are examples of focus on humanity and care in all three of the law types, but there are also examples of passive care, sometimes even inhumane and repressive, in all types. Thus, type of law cannot be said to in general correspond to a specific content of care. Although CCC can be delivered in accordance with human and civil rights, there is still a dissatisfying situation concerning the procedural rights that should ensure the misuser his/her rights to freedom from unlawful detention. The possibility to appeal to a higher instance is missing in about 20 percent of European CCC laws, although not differentiating one type of legislation from the others. A clear difference between the three law types concerns criteria that form the basis for who will be provided care according to the laws. This is of major importance for which persons of the needy who will receive care: addicted offenders, out-acting persons or the most vulnerable. The criteria for selecting these relate to the implicit ambitions of CCC – correction, protection, or for support to those in greatest need for care. The question is what ambition a society should have concerning care without consent in case of substance abuse and addiction problems. The trend that CCC according to special administrative legislation is declining and criminal legislation increases in the world should therefore be noticed.     Keywords: Alcohol, drugs, substance misuse, coercive care, compulsory commitment to care, involuntary care, mandatory care, legislation, human and civil rights, comparative analysis, prediction models, and trend analysis / <p>Vid tidpunkten för disputationen var följande delarbeten opublicerade: delarbete 4 inskickat.</p><p>At the time of the doctoral defence the following papers were unpublished: paper 4 submitted.</p>

The purpose of this essay is to examine for the age discrimination towards older people in the working life. The essay practice EU-law and national law to examine the age discrimination. It also looks for the limits towards age discrimination. A presentation of the rules will make it easier to see how employers are possible to get around the ban against age discrimination. This essay also illustrates how age discrimination emerges in recruitment processes and then how to discourage age discrimination. The essay is based on material in the legal source hierarchy and literature, internet based source and reports that have a connection with the subject choice. The legal dogmatic method has been applied with the legal sociology method to analyze the material.   The analyze shows that age discrimination is a fundamental right. The problem about age discrimination occurs according to the interpreting about opportunities against age discrimination. There is an opportunity for employer to get around the ban when the employee is 67 years old. Employers can also get around the ban when the costs are unacceptable in relation to hire an older person who coming up in the ages and can retrieve their pension. This hypothesis doesn’t agree with how todays working life and individual work career looks like. A recruitment process contributes to stereotypes for older persons. The reasons that contributes to stereotypes are how the pension and legal systems in the society are made and also because of peoples assessments and norms. The result of these stereotypes is involuntary retirement because older peoples get sort away in the recruitment process.   The labor law needs active provisions in the collaboration between employers and employees to countervail age discrimination in the recruitment process. In addition, the pension system and the law about employees whom is 67 years old needs to be regulated. The provisions are one way to frame same opportunities and equalities in the working life, especially for older people to get hired. / Uppsatsen har till syfte att redogöra för åldersdiskriminering riktad mot äldre personer iarbetslivet. Åldersdiskrimineringen redogörs genom att studera EU-rätt samt nationell rätt och se gränsen för åldersdiskriminering. En bild av bestämmelserna ska presenteras för att visa hur arbetsgivare har en möjlighet att kringgå förbudet mot åldersdiskriminering. Vad som även belyses är hur åldersdiskriminering kan komma att aktualiseras vid en rekryteringsprocess och vad som således kan motverka att åldersdiskriminering uppstår. Uppsatsen är baserad på material inom rättskällehierarkin samt litteratur, internet källor och rapporter som har en koppling till ämnesvalet. Materialet är sedan analyserat utifrån rättsdogmatisk metod samt rättssociologisk metod. Analysen resulterar i förbudet mot diskriminering p.g.a. ålder är en grundläggande rättighet. Problematiken kring åldersdiskriminering uppstår när undantagsmöjligheterna ska tolkas och tillämpas. Där finns ett utrymme för arbetsgivare att kringgå förbudet när arbetstagare är fyllda67 år. Dessutom går det att kringgå förbudet om det är oproportionerligt kostsamt för arbetsgivaren att anställa en äldre person som snart närmar sig pensionsåldern. Dock stämmer inte sistnämnda hypotes, sett till hur arbetsmarknaden och individens yrkeskarriär ser ut i dag. Åldersdiskriminering i en rekryteringsprocess består till stor del av omedvetna eller medvetna föreställningar om äldre personer. Orsakerna till föreställningarna är hur samhällets pensions- och rättssystem är uppbyggt samt människors värderingar och normer. Resultatet av dessa föreställningar blir ofrivillig pensionering av äldre personer i samhället för att de gallras bort i rekryteringsprocessen. För att motverka åldersdiskriminering i en rekryteringsprocess behöver lagstiftaren införa bestämmelser om ytterligare aktiva åtgärder i samverkan mellan arbetsgivare och arbetstagare. Dessutom borde pensionssystemet samt 67 årsregeln omarbetas då rådande bestämmelser inte överensstämmer  med  samhällets  funktionssätt.  Åtgärderna  är  ett  sätt  att  främja  likamöjligheter och rättigheter i arbetslivet och att öka chanserna till anställning för äldre.