This dissertation consists of four self-contained essays primarily concerned with incorporating the objectives of real world top managers, as revealed by the available empirical evidence, in supergame-theoretic analyses of long-term competition between oligopolistic firms. The first essay, "Ownership, Control, and Collusion", considers how the separation between ownership and control affects firms' competitive attitudes when top managers have the preference for smooth profit streams revealed by the evidence on "income smoothing" and when managerial compensation has the low pay-performance sensitivity found in many empirical studies. In a similar fashion, the second essay, "Stock-Related Compensation and Product-Market Competition", deals with the effects of the apparently more aggressive managerial incentives linked to stock price (e.g. stock options), which have become increasingly common in the U.S., on long-term oligopolistic competition. In the third paper, "Debt as a (Credible) Collusive Device", shareholders’ commitments to reduce conflicts with debtholders by choosing a top manager with a highly valuable reputation or with "conservative" incentives are considered. These forms of commitment have been shown to reduce the (agency) cost of debt finance; this paper characterizes their effects on the relation between firms' capital structure and product market competition. The fourth paper, "Multimarket Contact, Concavity, and Collusion", addresses the relation between multimarket contact and firms’ ability to sustain collusive behavior in repeated oligopolies. It explores how this relation is affected by the strict concavity of firms’ objective function induced by managerial objectives and by other features of reality, discusses the effects of conglomeration and horizontal mergers, and extends the results to non-oligopolistic supergames. / <p>Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögskolan, 1999</p>

AbstractOur life-experiences and our background form the way we act and the activities we are involved in. The overall purpose in this thesis has been to study what habits are to be found in different activities related to the outdoors and how these habits have been developed. Hopefully this work can contribute to a better understanding of the meaning of habits in our lives and thereby play a part in a further differentiated talk about habits and knowledge in society. The background and my theoretical approach has been three views of habits:In practice these patterns of habits are not separable so this approach should be seen as a way of making the development of habits clearer. Another purpose is to study how the following concepts can be related to habits: Reflection, master-apprentice, epistéme, techne, phronesis, interest and tacit knowledge. These habits and concepts constitute a background against which the results will be analyzed. The result originates from seven interviews with very experienced professionals. From the results of these interviews I have created short stories. This is a narrative method, a qualitative attempt that is built on life histories. In this case intention is to formulate an idea of how the way to different habits and knowledge are formed.The stories, i.e. the result, illustrates that all respondents, in one way or another, are affected by the social habit. The culture and the traditions that exist where you were born and where you live will influence habits, the way people think and what values they have creates circumstances for further development. The habit of action is also clearly described in the stories where experiences are an essential part of creating habits. To this habit of action, reflection must be added, a reflection related to the experienced actions. These reflections can help to develop and refine so new actions and challenges can be made. The stories also demonstrate that the relation master-apprentice develops habits. The apprentice learns from the master but the master also has the opportunity to learn by reflecting over why he or she acts in the way he or she does. The habit of knowledge by epistéme, techne and phronesis is also shown in the results. The dominating knowledge-form in these stories is techne, which can be described as know how. Phronesis, practical wisdom, can also be seen in some stories. The concept of phronesis is a question of doing the right thing at the right time considering3the unique situation thus the concept of phronesis involves an ethic dimension. Within the frames of phronesis signs of tacit knowledge can be seen, where the stories describe a kind of intuitive action. The result also indicates that interest is a major factor for creating habits and therefore interest is important for the development of knowledge.Finally I hope that this thesis can contribute to a deeper knowledge about habits and different kind of knowledge. My work can hopefully lead to a discussion or contribute to differentiation in the discussion about knowledge that is presented in today’s society. This is especially important to discuss in the university world where more and new knowledge is the foundation for development.Word for seeking: Habits, epistemology, forms of knowledge, reflection, master-apprentice, episteme, techne, phronesis, interest, and tacit knowledge.

Syftet med avhandlingen är att granska hur lärarkunskap formuleras och bedöms i verksamhetsförlagd utbildning (VFU) inom svensk lärarutbildning. Utgångspunkten tas i det faktum att lärares yrkeskunskaper under lång tid varit uppdelade och beskrivna som teoretiska och praktiska, till exempel uttryckta som lärares tänkande respektive lärares handlande, eller vad lärare vet och vad lärare kan utföra. Det senaste policydokumentet för svensk lärarutbildning speglar denna uppdelning och poängterar vikten av en integrering av det teoretiska och praktiska under såväl högskoleförlagd utbildning (HFU) som VFU. Därmed finns det policyintentioner kring en mer forskningsgrundad VFU samtidigt som HFU anmodas ta sin utgångspunkt i erfarenhetsgrundad kunskap. Som analysverktyg används ett kunskapsteoretiskt ramverk där lärarkunskap förstås som påståendekunskap eller procedurkunskap och kunskap-för-praktiken (forskningsgrundad) eller kunskap-i-praktiken (erfarenhetsgrundad). I Studie I granskas kunskapsmål, riktade mot VFU, vid sjutton lärarprogram i Sverige. I Studie II och Studie III granskas bedömningssamtal i två olika VFU-kurser vid ett (1) lärarprogram i Sverige. Resultaten från Studie I visar att kunskapsmålen kan förstås som ett mischmasch av lärares påstående- och procedurkunskaper, där procedurkunskaperna dominerar, och kunskapsmålens kunskapsgrunder kan svårligen spåras. I Studie II och Studie III arrangerar lärarutbildarna sina skolbesök och bedömningssamtal på olika sätt vilket påverkar vilka av, och hur, lärarstudenternas kunskaper bedöms. I Studie II besöker lärarutbildarna lärarstudenterna vid deras skolplaceringar men gör inga lektionsobservationer innan bedömningssamtalen. I Studie III görs lektionsobservationer. Resultaten från de båda studierna visar att bedömningssamtalen explicit kännetecknas av en formativ bedömning där lärarstudenternas procedurkunskaper och kunskap-i-praktiken fokuseras. En bedömning av påståendekunskaper och kunskaper-för-praktiken kan svårligen spåras. I Studie III analyseras bedömningen av lärarstudenternas procedurala kunskaper-i-praktiken även med hjälp av ett ramverk av modeller för bedömning av yrkeskunskap. Resultatet visar att bedömningen av lärarstudenternas procedurkunskaper karaktäriseras av en holistisk modell där lärarutbildarna refererar till flera olika omständigheter som påverkar lärarstudenternas handlingar, med koppling till deras egna erfarenhetsgrundade och tysta yrkeskunskaper, snarare än till kursernas formella kunskapsmål. En diskussion förs om frånvaron av kunskap-för-praktiken i VFU i relation till teorier om yrkeskunskap och yrkeslärande. Vidare diskuteras den tydliga närvaron av kunskap-i-praktiken i VFU i relation till teorier om de tysta dimensionerna av yrkeskunskap. / The purpose of the dissertation is to examine how teacher knowledge is formulated and assessed in the school-based education (SBE) in Swedish teacher education. The basis is that teachers’ vocational knowledge has been divided and described as theoretical and practical, i.e., expressed as teachers’ thinking versus their actions, or what teachers know in relation to what they can do. The recent policy document for Swedish teacher education reflects this division and stresses the importance of integrating practice and theory within both university-based education as well as SBE. Thus, the intention of the policy is directed towards a more research-based SBE at the same time the university-based education is proposed to take its starting point in experience-based knowledge. An epistemological analytical tool is used where teacher knowledge is understood as being propositional or procedural, and knowledge-for-practice (research-based) or knowledge-in-practice (experience-based). In Study I the learning objectives directed to SBE in seventeen Swedish teacher education programs are analyzed. In Study II and Study III student-teaching conferences in two different school-based courses at one (1) Swedish teacher education program are studied. The results from Study I show that the learning objectives can be understood as a mishmash of propositional and procedural teacher knowledge, though procedural knowledge dominates, and the learning objectives’ basis of knowledge can hardly be traced. In Study II and Study III the teacher educators’ school visits and the studentteaching conferences are arranged in different ways, and affect what and how student teachers’ knowledge is assessed. In Study II teacher educators visit the student teachers at their school placements without having done any lesson observations prior the student-teaching conferences. In Study III observations are done. The results from these two studies show that the student-teaching conferences are explicitly characterized by formative assessments where student teachers’ procedural knowledge and knowledge-in-practice is emphasized. An assessment of propositional knowledge and knowledge-for-practice can hardly be traced. In Study III the assessment of student teachers’ procedural knowledge-in-practice is also analyzed within a framework of models for assessment of vocational knowledge. The results show that a holistic model characterizes the assessment of student teachers’ procedural knowledge where teacher educators refer to several circumstances that affect student teachers’ vocational actions, according to their experience-based and tacit teacher knowledge, rather than the course’s formal learning objectives. A discussion is held about the absence of knowledge-for-practice in SBE, in relation to theories of vocational knowledge and vocational learning. Furthermore, the clear presence of knowledge-in-practice in SBE is discussed in accordance with theories of the tacit dimensions of vocational knowledge.

Syfte – Studien ämnar utveckla en större förståelse för små- och medelstora företags internationaliseringsprocesser och entreprenörskap över tid, samt vilka entreprenöriella element som kan ligga till grund för en global framgång och konkurrenskraft. Studien undersöker svenska företag inom cleantech-sektorerna solenergi, bioenergi, samt transport i syfte att finna insiktsfulla skillnader mellan sektorerna.   Design och metod – Studien är designad som en kvalitativ undersökning, i syfte att tillvarata rik och insiktsfull förståelse från tolv svenska cleantech-entreprenörer, med intervjudata som samlats in i ett tidigare forskningsprojekt. Den kvalitativa inriktningen karaktäriseras av en ambition att utveckla och använda olika teorier inom det aktuella forskningsområdet, där studiens empiri är styrande.   Resultat – Studiens resultat betonar att de tolv cleantech-entreprenörerna växer olika på internationella marknader och har olika behov, beroende på cleantech-sektor. Cleantech-företagen kan inte beskrivas eller förstås som en homogen grupp företag. Internationalisering bland svenska företag kan över tid beskrivas som en förändring från industrisamhället och dess neoklassiska synsätt till ett kunskapssamhälle, där kunden fungerar som medproducent i den dynamiska värdeskapande processen. I en ständigt föränderlig omvärld kan förståelse för förändring vara en entreprenörs viktigaste förmåga och egenskap. Två viktiga insikter är; (1) entreprenörens förståelse för vad som är ett företags kärnkompetens, och hur kärnkompetensen tillvaratas på bästa sätt; (2) entreprenörens förmåga att våga förändra sin verksamhet och att lyckas göra det på rätt sätt, det vill säga förmågan att åstadkomma effectuation.                                                                                                                                                                                        Studien betonar även hur de tolv cleantech-entreprenörerna kan åstadkomma konkurrenskraft och framgång i sina internationaliseringsprocesser genom att uppnå innanförskap i relevanta nätverk. Ett innanförskap i relevanta nätverk är avhängigt entreprenörernas kunskaper, erfarenheter, förmågor och egenskaper att skapa förtroende och värde i bilaterala relationer. Förmågan att som entreprenör se, förstå och utveckla möjligheter kan vara en nyckelfaktor för att uppnå framgång och konkurrenskraft på utländska marknader. Den främsta kunskapen i dagens föränderliga omvärld är erfarenhetsbaserad och tyst kunskap, eftersom objektiv kunskap endast ger en stillbild av den situationsbundna verkligheten. Studien framhäver några insiktsfulla skillnader mellan solenergiföretagen och bioenergiföretagen, samt transportföretaget, och skapar en större förståelse för fenomenet cleantech.   Originalitet – Studiens forskningsområden, SME:s internationalisering och entreprenörskap, sammanflätas med psykologiska (kognitiva) och filosofiska (kunskapsmässiga) element, vilket leder fram till nya perspektiv inom internationell företagsekonomi. / Purpose – The study aims to develop a greater understanding of small- and medium sized enterprises internationalization processes and entrepreneurship over time, as well as the entrepreneurial elements that can form the basis for a global success and competitiveness. The study examines Swedish companies in the cleantech sectors solar energy, bioenergy, and transportation in order to find insightful differences.   Design and methodology – The study is designed as a qualitative survey, in order to take advantage of the rich and insightful understanding from twelve Swedish cleantech entrepreneurs, with interview data gathered in a previous research project. The qualitative approach is characterized by a desire to develop and use different theories in the research field, where the empirical data is conductive.   Findings – The study results emphasize that the twelve cleantech entrepreneurs grows differently within international markets and has different needs, depending on the cleantech sector. The cleantech companies cannot be described nor understood as a homogeneous group of companies. Internationalization of Swedish companies can over time be described as a change from an industrial society and its neo-classical approach into a knowledge society, where the customer serves as co-producer of the dynamic value creation process. In a constantly changing world, understanding change can be the most important entrepreneurial ability and capability. Two important insights are; (1) the entrepreneurs’ understanding of the company’s core competencies, and how the core competencies can serve as an advantage best; (2) the entrepreneurs’ ability to dare make change in their business and being successful doing so correctly, i.e. the ability to achieve effectuation.   The study also emphasizes how the twelve cleantech entrepreneurs can achieve competitiveness and success in their internationalization processes by achieve insidership in relevant networks. Insidership in relevant networks depends on entrepreneurs’ knowledge, experience, abilities and capabilities to create trust and value in bilateral relationships. The ability of the entrepreneur to see, understand and develop opportunities can be a key factor for success and competitiveness in foreign markets. The main knowledge in today's changing business environment is experiential and tacit knowledge as objective knowledge provides only a snapshot of the situation-bound reality. The study highlights some insightful differences between solar companies and bioenergy companies, as well as the transportation company, and create a greater understanding of the phenomenon of cleantech.   Originality – The study's research field, SME's internationalization and entrepreneurship, intertwines with psychological (cognitive) and philosophical (in terms of knowledge) elements, which leads to new perspectives in international business and administration.

本研究目的是希望透過知識管理系統的建置，讓室內設計產業的內隱知識外顯化，透過設計知識模組化的運用，幫助公司設計創意的積累和活用，達成提高員工工作效率、節省組織相關成本、增加組織營運績效，進而促使室內設計公司得以產生最佳的營運模式，並獲致可觀的營業利益。 本研究採取個案分析法作為資料分析方法，並利用次級資料蒐集法與深度訪談法進行資料蒐集。本研究結論如下： 1.室內設計公司建置知識管理系統的架構，包括 (1) 設計專業知識庫、(2) 設計案例資料庫、(3) 工程專業知識庫、(4) 工程案例資料庫、(5) 企業管理知識庫等五個主要資料庫。 2.室內設計公司建置知識管理系統的目的，包括 (1) 累積設計創意和傳遞設計知識、(2) 善用設計知識達成創意加值、(3) 提高員工工作效率和累積員工專業職能、(4) 增加設計提案成功率、(5) 節省組織與相關人力成本、(6) 建置並強化人才培訓基礎、(7) 增加組織營運績效與組織營業利益、(8) 擴展公司組織規模並提昇公司競爭力。 3.室內設計公司建置知識管理系統的關鍵因素，包括 (1) 具備領導力的知識工作者、(2) 組織與個人對於「知識管理」的意願和動機、(3) 重視「知識管理」的組織制度、(4) 重視「知識管理」的組織環境、(5) 有利發展「知識管理」的組織結構、(6) 具有清楚及正確的組織知識策略、(7) 重視知識內容的品質管理、(8) 詳盡細緻的管理「知識管理」相關流程、(9) 足夠力量支援「知識管理」的資訊科技、(10) 維運「知識管理系統」所花費資源。 / This study hopes to take tacit knowledge from the interior design industry and organize it into explicit information through the implementation of knowledge management systems. The modularization of design knowledge will facilitate a company’s accumulation and utilization of design creativity, thereby effectively increasing employee efficiency, reducing operational costs, and increasing overall company efficiency. Further, this will help interior design companies to establish an optimal business model, thereby achieving significant business profits. This study analyzes data obtained through individual case studies, and gathered information through secondary data collection and in-depth interviews. This study draws the following conclusions: 1. The knowledge management systems implemented by interior design companies include five major databases for the following types of knowledge: (1) Design expertise; (2) Previous design cases; (3) Engineering expertise; (4) Previous engineering cases; (5) Enterprise management. 2. The reasons for which interior design companies implement knowledge management systems include: (1) Accumulation of design creativity and to pass on design knowledge; (2) Utilization of design knowledge to create added value to creativity; (3) Increase employee efficiency and enhance employee professionalism and expertise; (4) Increase success rate of design proposals; (5) Reduce costs related to the company and workforce; (6) Establish and bolster the basic skills for further staff training; (7) Boost operational efficiency and business profits; (8) Expand company operations and bolster competitiveness. 3. There are a number of key factors to the successful implementation of knowledge management systems in interior design companies. These include: (1) Knowledge workers with leadership capability; (2) An organization and individual employees that are willing and motivated to engage in “knowledge management”; (3) An organization structure that emphasizes “knowledge management”; (4) A working environment that emphasizes “knowledge management”; (5) An organization structure conducive to developing “knowledge management”; (6) A clear and consistent set of knowledge strategies for the company; (7) A quality control system that emphasizes knowledge content; (8) Detailed attention to the monitoring of “knowledge management” protocols; (9) Adequate support for the information technology necessary for “knowledge management”; (10) Sufficient resources to maintain the operation of “knowledge management systems”.

Aquest treball de recerca se centra en un dels processos més rellevants de les persones: l’intercanvi de coneixements (IC). El coneixement pot ser explícit o tàcit. L’explícit es pot codificar, estructurar i emmagatzemar de manera que pugui estar disponible. El coneixement tàcit, conegut també com a tacit knowing, és l’acció de conèixer que no es pot codificar ni estructurar, sinó que depèn de les experiències, el criteri i els valors de la persona. Les xarxes socials informals de les organitzacions esdevenen un mitjà pel qual es pot facilitar la transmissió del tacit knowing, de manera que mitjançant l’anàlisi de xarxes socials (social network analysis, SNA) es poden entendre i analitzar les relacions entre les persones, més enllà de les estructures formals i jeràrquiques. Aquesta situació és rellevant perquè l’alta direcció potenciï, i no cerqui d’estructurar o de controlar, aquestes xarxes socials i amb una gestió adequada incentivi que el coneixement flueixi a través d’elles. Es plantegen els objectius següents: 1) establir l’impacte de la complexitat de tasques en la intensitat de la interacció de xarxes socials en una organització; 2) establir l’impacte de la complexitat de tasques en el procés d’intercanvi de coneixement, i 3) verificar si hi ha alguna relació entre la intensitat de la interacció de les xarxes socials en el procés d’intercanvi de coneixement (IC). En la recerca, s’ha administrat una enquesta a tres organitzacions peruanes intensives en coneixement. Es planteja que, com més complexes siguin les tasques, la propensió de la persona a intercanviar coneixements ha de ser més gran. Els criteris de classificació de la complexitat es basen en la multiplicitat de resultats, esquemes de solució, conflictes i incertesa, i s’ha pres la qualificació d’experts de les tres organitzacions, els quals indiquen en els individus qualificats el percentatge de temps que dediquen per realitzar cada tipus de tasca en la seva rutina normal. La intensitat de la interacció de xarxes i la propensió a l’IC s’obtenen de les enquestes. De l’anàlisi efectuada, s’observa una relació directa entre la complexitat de tasques i la intensitat en la interacció de la xarxa social de coneixement, com també entre la complexitat i la propensió a intercanviar coneixement. Així mateix, s’ha trobat una relació directa entre les persones que tenen un grau més alt d’interacció en la xarxa social de coneixement i la seva propensió a l’intercanvi de coneixements. Les contribucions principals d’aquesta recerca són aquestes: 1) en l’aspecte acadèmic, la metodologia plantejada quan es treballa amb la qualificació de la persona que coneix millor la naturalesa del treball; 2) en l’aspecte pràctic, la sistematització que es pot obtenir per identificar les persones que tenen més propensió a intercanviar coneixements per potenciar-los dins de l’organització. / El presente trabajo de investigación enfoca uno de los procesos más relevantes de las personas, el Intercambio de Conocimientos (IC). El conocimiento puede ser explícito o tácito. El explícito se puede codificar, estructurar y almacenar de manera que pueda estar disponible. El conocimiento tácito, o también conocido como Tacit Knowing, es la acción de conocer que no se puede codificar ni estructurar; este depende de las experiencias, el criterio y los valores de la persona. Las redes sociales informales en las organizaciones se convierten en un medio por el cual se puede facilitar la transmisión del Tacit Knowing, por lo que mediante el análisis de redes sociales (Social Network Analysis (SNA)) se puede entender y analizar las relaciones entre las personas más allá de las estructuras formales y jerárquicas. Esta situación es relevante para que la alta gerencia potencie, y no trate de estructurar o controlar, estas redes sociales y con una adecuada gestión que incentive que el conocimiento fluya a través de ellas. Se plantean los siguientes objetivos: 1) establecer el Impacto de la Complejidad de Tareas en la intensidad de la interacción de Redes Sociales en una organización, 2) establecer el Impacto de la Complejidad de Tareas en el proceso de Intercambio de Conocimiento y 3) verificar si existe alguna relación entre la intensidad de la interacción de las redes sociales en el proceso de Intercambio de Conocimiento (IC). En la investigación se ha aplicado una encuesta a tres organizaciones peruanas intensivas en conocimiento. Se plantea que a mayor complejidad de tareas, la propensión que debe de tener la persona al intercambio de conocimientos debe ser mayor. Los criterios de clasificación para la complejidad se basan en la multiplicidad de resultados, esquemas de solución, conflictos e incertidumbre y se ha tomado la calificación de expertos de las tres organizaciones, quienes indican en los individuos calificados el porcentaje de tiempo de cada tipo de tareas realizadas en su rutina normal. La intensidad de la interacción de redes y la propensión al IC se obtienen de las encuestas. Del análisis efectuado, se observa una relación directa entre la complejidad de tareas y la intensidad en la interacción de la red social de conocimiento, así como entre la complejidad y la propensión a intercambiar conocimiento. Asimismo, se ha encontrado una relación directa entre las personas que tienen un mayor grado interacción en la red social de conocimiento y su propensión al intercambio de conocimientos. Las principales contribuciones de la presente investigación son las siguientes: 1) en el aspecto académico está la metodología planteada cuando se trabaja con la calificación de la persona que mejor conoce la naturaleza del trabajo; 2) en el aspecto práctico está en la sistematización que se puede obtener para identificar a las personas que tienen una mayor propensión a intercambiar conocimiento para potenciarlos dentro de la organización. / The research addresses one of the most important processes of people, the Knowledge Sharing (KS). Knowledge can be explicit or tacit. The explicit can be structured and stored in a manner that may be available. Tacit knowledge, or also known as Tacit Knowing, is action learning that can not be encoded or structure, this depends on the experience, judgment and values of the person. Informal social networks in organizations become a means to facilitate the transmission of Tacit Knowing, so by analyzing social networks (Social Network Analysis (SNA)) can be understood and analyzed the relationships between people beyond formal and hierarchical structures. This situation is relevant to senior management in order to enhance, rather than try to structure or control, these social networks. An appropriate management should incentive that knowledge flows through them. The research objectives are: 1) establish the Impact of Task Complexity in the intensity of the interaction of social networks in an organization, 2) set the Impact of Task Complexity in the process of knowledge sharing and 3) verify if there is any relationship between the intensity of the interaction of social networks in the process of Knowledge Sharing (KS). A survey has been applied to three peruvian knowledge intensive organizations. It argues that a more complex task, the propensity that the person must have knowledge sharing should be higher. The classification criteria for complexity based on the multiplicity of outcomes, settlement schemes, conflict and uncertainty and has taken the qualification of experts from the three organizations, who qualified individuals listed in the percentage of time each type of task made in their normal routine. The intensity of the interaction of networks and the propensity to KS are obtained from surveys. The analysis conducted, there is a direct relation between task complexity and intensity in the interaction of the social network of knowledge and between complexity and propensity to share knowledge. Also found a direct relationship between people with greater social interaction network of knowledge and their propensity to knowledge sharing. The main contributions of this research are: 1) academically the proposed methodology when working with the qualification of the person who best knows the nature of work, 2) on the practical aspect is that the systematization can get to identify people who have a greater propensity to share knowledge to empower them within the organization.

This paper aims to provide a description of how knowledge can occur in Apoteket AB, an organization that is operating on the Swedish pharmacy market. The purpose of this paper is also to describe how the organizational learning occurs in the organization, and how the outcome of this learning can be stored in the organizational memory. This subject is of interest since Apoteket AB experience changes in their external environment in that they no longer have monopoly to sell pharmaceuticals on the Swedish pharmacy market. Earlier research claims that organizations need to develop new knowledge in order to take action, and this development needs to be supported by the management within the organization. The collection of primary data was done by two qualitative interviews with employees within the organization of Apoteket AB. Our conclusions are that knowledge can occur in many forms, such as tacit and explicit knowledge. The vast majority of the knowledge within the organization is the information that can be found in the electronic database Aponet within Apoteket AB, and that is useful for the employees in their daily work, and therefore is known as explicit knowledge. Since this knowledge is to be found through Aponet, the organizational memory plays an important role in sharing knowledge. The organizational learning can also be found in many different forms, making it possible for the organization to benefit from the employees experiences and discoveries. The outcome of this learning is often stored in the organizational memory known as social networks, which includes the employees in different situations.

During the second half of the 20th century the Stock Car Racing enjoyed substantial growth and development. General enthusiasm for fast cars built within American culture by racers, hot rodders, and automaker advertising campaigns helped fuel rapid acceptance of production-based racing. Widespread popular fascination with automotive speed helped stock car racing withstand criticism of the violent nature of the sport leveled by public safety groups and politicians during the first decade of its organization. Indeed, the perceived rebelliousness of stock car racing helped drive stock car racing to develop a loyal fan base in the American South. For the National Association for Stock Car Automobile Racing (NASCAR) control over the technology of competition and the conduct of race events brought respectability, scale, and profitability to this entertainment phenomenon between 1949 and 1979. The power to specify technology offered NASCAR leverage over the actions of racers who, despite their status as independent contractors, remained fiercely loyal competitors. Control over the technology of competition also helped maintain strictly stock perceptions of NASCAR racing that made corporate sponsorship attractive to automakers and held the interest of the general public. After initial forays across the nation, NASCAR chose advantageous concentration on the southeastern markets where racing spectacle found the most enthusiastic and devoted audience. This thesis is an account of the process of systematization that brought the grass-roots phenomenon of production-based to a region and an nation, and how NASCAR relied on a stock-appearing racecar as a device to simultaneously control participants, lure corporate promotional dollars, and attract fans.

Research by design refers to the design of architectural research as an integral part of architectural design processes. In 1980s, it emerged as a third way in design research that was dominated until then by the methods of natural sciences and humanities. With this new formulation of design research, a methodological and epistemological transformation occurs, leading to the integration of practical knowledge into architectural research. The primary epistemological question transforms from knowing what design is and knowing how to design to knowing what through the act of design. The integration of the act of design in research transforms the status of design in design research from being an object of inquiry to being a research approach. In the literature on research by design, this transformation is often related with Donald Sch&ouml / n&rsquo / s conceptualization of &ldquo / reflective practice.&rdquo / The main discussion of reflective practice is primarily methodological rather than epistemological. Although it provides methodological insights, it is not sufficient to constitute an epistemological basis for research by design. Thus, the epistemological basis of research by design has not yet been adequately defined. In this study, the notion of &ldquo / reflective practice&rdquo / is investigated in a broader context relating it to its sources in the concepts of &ldquo / tacit knowledge&rdquo / and &ldquo / action research.&rdquo / A conceptual framework for research by design is constructed by relating these concepts with the discussions on research by design and with practical philosophy, the implications of which has remained rather uninvestigated in this context. Aristotle&rsquo / s elaboration of knowledge generation in action and the concept of phron&amp / #275 / sis (practical knowledge, prudence, or practical wisdom) constitute the underpinning of this conceptual framework. The conceptual framework that is constructed on the basis of the key concepts in practical philosophy is discussed in the context of architectural design education. When architectural design education is formulated as a process of research by design within this framework, knowledge generated in the educational design processes promises not only to improve the particular educational context and architectural education but eventually to contribute to architectural knowledge.

Historically there has been an ongoing debate whether leadership is innate behaviour, a trait or a skill. I believe leadership is both a skill and a behaviour that exhibits that skill (Doh 2003). ‘This dual definition generated an additional disagreement over whether leadership can be taught’ (Doh 2003, p. 54). I have had conversations with professors, alumni and leaders who have experience with leadership (broadly defined) and more specifically with leadership programmes. I have asked the experts how they would define leadership; if leaders are born; how the profile of a successful leader looks like; and how we should develop leaders. This study indicates that leadership can be enhanced with the development of (1) explicit knowledge (2) tacit knowledge (3) emotional intelligence (4) and ethical leadership.