With the advent of a new constitutional dispensation in South Africa, intimate relationships that were not formally recognised, such as customary marriages, became fully recognised through designated legislation. Domestic partnerships are, however, afforded only limited recognition despite compelling reasons that lead people to domestic partnerships. Domestic partners are also discriminated against based on marital status despite a Constitution that forbids discrimination based on equality, human dignity and marital status. The object of this study is to investigate whether there are sufficient grounds to afford domestic partnerships full recognition similar to that granted to civil marriage. This study includes arguments in favour and against the recognition of domestic partnerships and a discussion of the reasons that lead people into domestic partnerships. There will also be an analysis of the draft Domestic Partnership Bill 36 of 2008 to determine the suitability of the draft Bill to regulate domestic partnerships. This investigation is conducted with reference to relevant draft Bills, legislation, and case law. / Private Law / LLM

English abstract The thesis deals with the theoretical and the practical level, the views of adolescents on the issues of the elderly. Represents the characteristics of adolescence and its stages. Describes the basic physical, psychological, emotional and social changes of adolescence and their impact on this age period. Subsequently defines old age, aging, elderly, and the phase of old age. With regard to the stage of old age outlines the basic physical, psychological, and social changes in the period of old age. The third chapter focuses on the issue of the views and attitudes of the society on the elderly and the factors, which affects them. The fourth chapter describes the opinions and attitudes of adolescents to the elderly and the factors which influence. The third and the fourth chapter is enhanced by research with this issue. The final chapter consists of the research of the investigation describing the views of adolescents to the elderly. Research survey consists of ten lines with the selected issues of the elderly, dealing with the characteristics of the elderly, the expectations and concerns of the elderly, the advantages and disadvantages of the elderly, the work of the elderly, care for the elderly, living with seniors, the situation of today's older people benefit from contact with the senior...

En dépit de nombreuses confirmations expérimentales, le Modèle Standard, théorie décrivant les particules élémentaires et trois des interactions fondamentales souffre de difficultés théoriques et expérimentales. Ces dernières motivent l’existence d’une physique non décrite jusqu’alors : la Nouvelle Physique. Ce travail se focalise sur la recherche de gluons scalaires, appelés communément sgluons, nouvelles particules prédites dans plusieurs théories de Nouvelle Physique. Une étude phénoménologique considère les différents états finals (de un à quatre quarks top) et signatures (un ou deux leptons chargés) qui peuvent être engendrés par l’existence de sgluons. La sensibilité d’une expérience comme Atlas à ce signal est estimée et montre que l’un des états finals les plus prometteurs est celui contenant quatre quarks top, dans la signature à deux leptons porteurs de la même charge électrique (électron ou muon). La recherche de sgluons dans l’expérience Atlas s’appuie sur les états finals à quatre quarks top dans une signature à deux leptons porteurs de la même charge électrique, des jets étiquetés b et de l’énergie transverse manquante. Elle représente la première recherche mondiale de sgluons dans cet état final. Les principaux enjeux de l’analyse (estimation des bruits de fond, optimisation de la sélection, interprétation statistique) sont détaillés. La comparaison avec les données enregistrées pendant la première partie de l’année 2012 (L = 14:3 fb..1) ne montre pas d’excès significatif. La limite inférieure sur la masse du sgluon est alors de 0.80+0:02..0:03 TeV. L’extension de cette analyse avec le lot complet de données enregistrées en 2012 par Atlas est également présentée dans ce document et permet une sensibilité accrue jusqu’à des masses de sgluons de 0:94 0:03 TeV. Ce document présente également les analyses et résultats relatifs à des études de performances. La première s’attache au système de hautes tensions du calorimètre hadronique à tuiles du détecteur Atlas (TileCal). Elle conclut notamment, au regard des critères établis, que seuls 7 canaux de hautes tensions du TileCal (sur un total de 9852) ont un comportement problématique. La deuxième étude est liée à la réjection de l’effet d’empilement au moyen d’une sélection sur la variable JVF (Jet Vertex Fraction). L’efficacité de cette sélection, calculée dans les données et dans la simulation montre des différences, nécessitant l’apport d’une correction à la simulation. La détermination de facteurs correctifs et de leurs incertitudes systématiques associées est présentée dans ce document. / Despite its experimental confirmations, the Standard Model, which describes both the elementary particles and three of the fundamental interactions, has some theoretical and experimental limitations. As a consequence of these limitations, a Physics not described in the context of the Standard Model could exist : the New Physics. This work focuses on the search for scalar gluons, commonly dubbed sgluons, predicted in various New Physics theories. A phenomenological study considers various final states (containing between two and four top quarks) and signatures (with one or two charged leptons) that could arise from sgluon production. The sensitivity of an Atlas-like experiment to this signal is estimated and the results indicate that one of the most promising final states contains four top quarks in a signature with two charged leptons (electron or muon) of the same electric charge. The search for sgluons within the Atlas experiment uses the previous results. Thus, it only investigates the 4-top topology in a signature containing two same-sign charged leptons, b-jets and missing transverse energy. It represents the first search ever for sgluons in this final state. The main steps of the analysis (background estimation, selection optimisation and statistical interpretation) are detailed. The comparison with the data recorded in the first months of 2012 (L = 14:3 fb..1) shows no significant excess and is interpreted in terms of a limit on the sgluon mass. The latter is found to be 0.80+0:02..0:03 TeV. The extension of this analysis to the full 2012 Atlas dataset is also presented in this document and shows an increased expected sensitivity to sgluon masses up to 0:94 0:03 TeV. Finally, this document also presents the analyses and results of performance studies. The first one is related to the high voltage system of the Atlas Tile Calorimeter (TileCal). The main conclusion is that only 7 channels out of the 9852 TileCal ones are fond to be problematic. The second study focuses on the rejection of the pile-up effect by the means of a selection applied on the so-called JVF (Jet Vertex Fraction) variable. The efficiency of this selection is computed both in data and simulation and shows some differences that have to be corrected in the simulation. The derivation of the correction factors and their associated systematic uncertainties is detailed in this document.

Previous research indicates that gay men‟s relationships with their mothers are generally more warm, supportive, and emotional than their relationships with their fathers, and that fathers are less likely to be told, less likely to be told first, and more likely to react negatively to disclosure than mothers would. Most of these findings are derived from asking sons to report on their parental relationships. As such, very little is known about the nature of the father-son relationship before, during, and after disclosure, from the father‟s perspective. The aim of this thesis, therefore, is to uncover and explore first-hand accounts of the experiences and taken-for-granted meanings that potentially shape heterosexual fathers‟ relationships with their gay sons. A sample comprising six Afrikaans-speaking, white fathers, between the ages of 53 and 61 years, from a middle to upper-middle income bracket, and residing in Gauteng, South Africa, were selected purposively through the use of opportunistic or convenience sampling. Utilising an interpretivist approach located within the qualitative research paradigm, an individual in-depth interview strategy was adopted as a means of gathering data. A brief questionnaire probing demographic characteristics was also utilised to further contextualise the data obtained in the interviews. All the interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed for later coding and analysis. Through the use of thematic network analysis, eight organising themes were uncovered, including (a) subliminal awareness prior to coming out; (b) epistemic rupture of internal system of beliefs; (c) personal paradigmatic shifts; (d) acceptance as a complex and ongoing dialectical and reconciliatory process; (e) ambiguous loss; (f) persistent history of thought; (f) wrestling with the reason why; and (g) coming out as a dual experience. Each organising theme contained several basic themes. On the whole, the themes support the view that most parents are neither totally rejecting nor fully accepting of their gay sons. The fathers are seen to navigate their way through a plethora of experiences and meanings that are not only likely to inform the development of their multidimensional identities as men and fathers, but also shape their unique relationships with their gay sons. While the fathers may have attained a level of “loving denial” in their relationships with their gay sons, most continue to struggle with the meaning and expression of same-sex sexuality, and appear to wrestle with the challenge of integrating their understanding of same-sex sexuality with their constructions of traditional Afrikaner masculinity, as well as their meanings associated with having a gay son. However, unlike prior reports of a poor father-son dyad, the fathers reported a general improvement in their relationship with their gay son after he came out. This discrepancy may be attributed to the possibility that the particular group of fathers who volunteered to discuss their father-son relationships willingly were further along in the acceptance process. Recommendations for future research, includes an exploration of the dynamic interaction between heterosexual and gay constructions of masculinity within the father-son dyad before, during and after disclosure, examining the role that mothers play in influencing the quality of the father-son relationship before, during and after disclosure, uncovering the intra- and inter-personal variables that may facilitate the adaptive adjustment processes among fathers over the longer term, and exploring the contexts and processes associated with transitions within fatherhood across the life course of fathers of gay sons. / Heterosexual fathers' relationships with their gay sons / Psychology / D. Phil.

Förlossningsrädsla har tidigare främst undersökts hos kvinnor som lever i heterosexuella relationer, och på senare tid även kommit att inkludera deras manliga partners upplevelser av rädsla. Förlossningsrädsla kan påverka negativt under familjebildningen, vilket gör den viktig att uppmärksamma i alla familjekonstellationer. Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka hur förlossningsrädsla erfars och tar sig uttryck hos lesbiska/bisexuella kvinnor och transpersoner, samt vad olika typer av bemötande i vården får för betydelse för dem och deras rädsla. Data samlades in genom semistrukturerade intervjuer med tio deltagare. De transkriberade intervjuerna bearbetades genom tematisk analys med en induktiv ansats.  Analysen resulterade i fem huvudteman som handlar om förlossningsrädslan, omkringliggande aspekter och hur bemötande i vården påverkar rädslan; Mina förlossningsrädslor, Naturlighet, cisnormer och femininitet, Vägen till barn, Att vara sårbar och utsatt under en förlossning och Bemötande i vården. Resultatet visar på att deltagarnas förlossningsrädsla är lik den som rapporterats i forskning i stort, men att det delvis tillkommer vissa nya aspekter för denna grupp. Förlossningsrädslan influeras av deras erfarenheter av bemötande i vården och den större omgivande sociala kontexten som påverkar genom processer av normer, minoritetsstress, hetero- och cisnormativitet och diskriminering. För vissa deltagare har förlossningsrädslan dessutom påverkats av att ha deltagit vid en partners förlossning. / Förlossningsrädsla hos lesbiska/bisexuella kvinnor och transpersoner - Förekomst, upplevelser och erfarenheter

A presente tese tem por tema a pioneira jurisprudência do Tribunal de Justiça do Rio Grande do Sul, relativamente às demandas por reconhecimento de efeitos jurídicos às uniões entre pessoas do mesmo sexo, compreendidas essas demandas como uma luta pela implementação da cidadania sexual, cujo obstáculo político principal na América Latina tem sido a resistência de setores conservadores do campo religioso. Partindo dessa premissa, a qual está evidenciada na literatura, o objeto da pesquisa focou a questão da influência religiosa no enfrentamento jurídico de questões ligadas à cidadania sexual. No intuito de pensar as causas das diferentes interpretações judiciais que conduzem ao reconhecimento (ou não) das uniões gays, foram analisadas decisões do TJRS e entrevistas realizadas com os magistrados que atuam na área do Direito de Família. O estudo buscou identificar as concepções dos magistrados sobre conjugalidade gay, religião e família, tentando identificar as categorias de pensamento que são acionadas pelos magistrados no momento de decidir. Um dos principais achados da pesquisa foi identificar a vinculação entre a rejeição à conjugalidade gay e o emprego de categorias de classificação ligadas à moral sexual cristã manifesta na valoração negativa da homossexualidade. Tal valoração aparece como fundamento subjacente aos argumentos formalmente empregados para justificar um tratamento desigual a gays e lésbicas. / The pioneering jurisprudence of the Rio Grande do Sul Court is analyzed regarding the recognition of juridical consequences of same sex unions. The legal claim for same sex marriage is here understood as part of a pledge for sexual citizenship. The main obstacle for such sexual rights in Latin America has been the resistance of conservative religious sectors. This thesis focuses on examining the religious influence of legal and juridical decisions regarding sexual citizenship. In order to analyze the factors related to the diversity of judicial interpretations leading the recognition (or not) of same sex marriage, we collected and analyzed documents consisting of the Court decisions, as well as interviewed in depth judges who work in Family Courts. The judges’ ideas of gay conjugality, religion and family were studied as to understand the concepts and categories they use when they take decisions on legal matters. One of the main findings of our research is a negative relation between gay marriage and the use of Christian concepts and categories regarding sexual morality – the use of religious categories which place a negative value on homosexuality. The negative value of homosexuality underlies arguments formally used in legal decisions that justify treating differently gays and lesbians.

I den här uppsatsen utforskas André Acimans roman Call Me by Your Name (2007) och regissören Luca Guadagninos filmatisering av verket (2017) i relation till det antika begreppet eros (ung. begär). Det finns sedan tidigare en konstnärlig tradition i västvärlden att tillämpa antik tematik vid gestaltningen av manligt samkönat begär och för att åskådliggöra hur detta sker även i Acimans och Guadagninos respektive verk används i den här uppsatsen Platons Gästabudet (Symposion, ca 385 f. Kr) som en återkommande utgångspunkt i analysen. Utifrån ett urval tematiska inslag i Gästabudet, som alla anknyter till Platons övergripande behandling av begär ur ett filosofiskt perspektiv, riktas i det här arbetet uppmärksamheten mot hur dessa teman även förekommer i Call Me by Your Name, roman som film. Detta gäller inte minst Platons presenterade tanke att eros, under rätt omständigheter, har förmågan att leda filosofen mot upplysthet och förståelsen av en upphöjd och evig ordning. Utöver att visa på hur båda verken (som utspelar sig i relativt modern tid) genomsyras av denna antika begärstematik är ett annat mål med uppsatsen att genom en komparativ analys, och med ett genusvetenskapligt och queerteoretiskt perspektiv, blottlägga hur skillnaderna mellan romanförlagan och filmadaptionen påverkar bilden av den unge huvudpersonen Elio och dennes utforskande av sin sexualitet – även då bilden av sexualitet i en mer generell mening. Slutsatsen som den här uppsatsen leder fram till är att Acimans förlaga vid en första anblick framstår som mer utmanande i förhållande till en modern heteronormativ ordning (så som åskådliggjord av Judith Butlers heteronormativa matris) medan Guadagninos version – trots skildringen av samkönat begär i berättelsens centrum – innefattar mer konservativa indikationer. Samtidigt är de utmanande aspekterna i Acimans roman inte heller helt oproblematiska vid en andra anblick. I den mån Acimans skildring med hjälp av den antika tematiken gör motstånd mot moderna uppfattningar om sexualitet, begär och relationsformer leder nyttjandet parallellt till att andra diskriminerande och begränsande uppfattningar om kön, genusidentitet och könsmaktsordning snarare bekräftas inom berättelsens ramar mer än vad de utmanas.

Doctor of Philosophy(PhD) / This thesis is concerned with the theoretical and practical development of a surface-based mapping algorithm for reliable and robust localization and mapping in prior unknown and unstructured environments. A surface-based map consists of a set of compressed surfaces, processed and represented without geometrical modelling. Each surface in the surface-based map represents an object in the environment. The ability to represent the exact shapes of objects via individual surfaces during the mapping process makes the surface-based mapping algorithm valuable in a number of navigation applications, such as mapping of prior unknown indoor and outdoor unstructured environments, target tracking, path planning and collision avoidance. The ability to unify representations of the same object taken from different viewpoints into a single surface makes the algorithm capable of working in multi-robot mapping applications. A surface-based map of the environment is build incrementally by acquiring the 3D range image of the scene, extracting the objects' surfaces from the 3D range image, aligning the set of extracted surfaces relative to the map and unifying the aligned set of surfaces with surfaces in the map. In the surface unification process the surfaces representing the same object are unified to make a single surface. The thesis introduces the following new methods which are used in the surface-based mapping algorithm: the extraction of surfaces from 3D range images based on a scanned surface continuity check; homogenization of the representation of the non-homogenously sampled surfaces; the alignment of the surface set relative to a large set of surfaces based on surface-based alignment algorithm; evaluating the correspondence between two surfaces based on the overlap area between surfaces; unification of the two surfaces belonging to the same object; and surface unification for a large set of surfaces. The theoretical contributions of this thesis are demonstrated with a series of practical implementations in different outdoor environments.

本文旨在探討於我國憲法架構下，同性戀者的權利保障議題。期以引介國外相關學說與法制，解決我國日漸浮現的相關爭議。 第一章，緒論。說明研究動機與研究範圍，並揭櫫科際整合的研究方法，兼採社會學等其他學門對於同性戀議題的既有研究成果，作為法學研究的背景。 第二章以憲法平等權保障為核心，從美國聯邦最高法院所建立的三重審查基準，討論其於「性傾向歧視」案件的適用。研究發現，對於同性戀者所為的差別待遇，基於「代表強化論」等政治程序參與保障、構成違憲「可疑分類」與根據從社會學等理論，同性戀者與異性戀者並無不同，應享有同等基本權利的憲法保障，除非政府所為分類具有一「優位」政府利益，且手段與目的緊密關連，否則應屬違憲。值得注意的是，美國聯邦最高法院於Romer v. Evans一案中揭示「本質原則」(per se rule)，於立法者「惡意」對「孤立的弱勢族群」，根據偏見予以全面性不利的差別待遇，法院即得直接認定違憲。本文認為此項平等權審查途徑的突破，仍有其適用上的爭議與缺陷，其影響有待進一步觀察。 其後，針對「同性性行為」的除罪化，與「同性婚姻」的合法化等兩個當前最具爭議性，與同性戀者生活關係密切的問題，本文嘗試以第二章所建立的理論基礎，檢視其正當性。第三章討論同性性行為的除罪化。首先以社會生物學反駁同性性行為的「不自然論據」。其次，基於「自由主義」的「傷害原則」，除非對第三人造成傷害，否則對性行為均不應加以管制。再者，針對管制同性性行為的「雞姦法」，論者雖謂該法並非僅就同性戀者加以處罰，然，實際上處罰者確均為同性戀者，況立法本意往往隱涵對同性戀者的偏見等，此即與憲法平等權保障相悖，應屬違憲。惟，美國聯邦最高法院於Bowers v. Hardwick一案中則肯定該法的合憲性，本文亦就該項判決予以批判。最後則就台灣同性性行為管制或相關立法與行政措施之現狀，提出修法建議。 第四章討論最具爭議的「同性婚姻」合法化問題。研究發現，同性婚姻於本文第二章所提出自由主義傷害原則，以及平等權理論之下應予合法。首先，駁斥反對者所提出的「滑坡理論」等諸項疑懼。其次，剖析美國司法實務就同性婚姻所提出的若干論據，發現，其於同性戀者的刻板印象，深受「同性戀恐懼症」所影響，均屬情緒性反應與理所當然的偏見，是項見解，亦於夏威夷州最高法院所為指標性判決得到回應。此外，比較全球各國對同性婚姻保障的制度，「準婚姻」及「登記伴侶」等制度雖然給予同性戀者若干保障，本文認為，此項制度仍凸顯同性戀者有異於異性戀者，婚姻的形式意義與實質保障均應爭取之。基於平等權理論，國家應該提供人民相同的法律保障，既然並無禁止異性戀者合法結婚，亦不應該禁止同性戀者結婚。 第五章則總結研究發現：一、從美國聯邦最高法院、歐洲人權法院、加拿大最高法院，乃至於聯合國人權委員會對於同性戀者權利保障議題的關注，而於「亞洲人權憲章」草案中，亦明白規定對於同性戀者的平等保障，對同性戀者的人權保障，已為全球逐漸形成的共識。以比較法的觀點而言，不同法律制度所形成的理論，亦在同性戀人權保障議題上，獲得相互引證與批判，有助於理論的成熟發展。二、本文提出同性戀者權利保障的理論基礎，雖然從不同學門理論、自由主義、政治哲學等出發，然而最終關注的焦點仍在於憲法平等權保障的理念。而相關理論於晚進各國司法實務上已見採納與實踐。三、雖然台灣社會目前對同性戀者權利保障議題，其問題意識形成與公眾討論仍未熱烈，關注議題與焦點亦較未全面性深入。本文認為，法律於社會改革具有其功能，從法律與平權運動的互動，呼籲有識者重視司法途徑以解決法律限制，並提出修法建議與審查基準，作為立法機關制訂法律與法院（包括大法官）審查相關議題的參考。 關鍵詞：同性戀、隱私權、平等權、審查基準、同性婚姻、自由主義、社會建構論、法律經濟學、同性性行為、防衛婚姻法。 目次 中文摘要 英文摘要 表次 第一章 緒論…………………………………………………………………………1 第二章 同性戀者權利保障的理論基礎…………………………………………27 第三章 同性性行為的除罪化……………………………………………………115 第四章 同性婚姻的合法化………………………………………………………164 第五章 結論：同性戀與憲法-兼論台灣同性戀者權利保障的未來…………240 參考書目……………………………………………………………………………247 附錄……………………………………………………………………………………I 詳目 第一章 緒論 1.1 研究動機………………………………………………………………………………………1 1.2 問題意識：同性戀議題的法學發問基礎……………………………………………………9 1.2.1 同性戀者在憲法基本權利主體的定位…………………………………………………14 1.2.2 同性戀者權利保障的議題取向與理論基礎……………………………………………15 1.2.3 憲法平等權審查基準的建立……………………………………………………………16 1.2.4 同性戀者權利保障的終極關懷：後續法律關係的確定與爭端解決…………………17 1.3 研究方法………………………………………………………………………………………18 1.3.1 科際整合的研究途徑……………………………………………………………………19 1.3.2 比較法的研究方法………………………………………………………………………21 1.4 本文架構：從理論到實用，從私領域到公領域……………………………………………24 第二章 同性戀者權利保障的理論基礎 2.1 理論前提：社會建構論的觀察………………………………………………………………27 2.1.1 同性戀：一個歷史的偶然？……………………………………………………………28 2.1.1.1 古代西方文化中的同性戀………………………………………………………28 2.1.1.2 古代西方文化以外的同性戀……………………………………………………30 2.1.1.3 近代文化中的同性戀……………………………………………………………32 2.1.1.4 中國傳統文化中的同性戀………………………………………………………33 2.1.1.5 同性戀醫學定義的歷史演變……………………………………………………36 2.1.2 同性戀的釋疑：同性戀（者）的刻板印象及現代科學的解釋………………………37 2.1.2.1 對同性戀（者）的刻板印象……………………………………………………38 2.1.2.1.1 同性戀危害社會………………………………………………………38 2.1.2.1.2 同性戀者無法生殖，對人類繁衍構成威脅…………………………39 2.1.2.1.3 同性戀者對兒童與青少年構成威脅…………………………………40 2.1.2.1.4 同性戀者的生活方式並不幸福………………………………………41 2.1.2.1.5 同性戀者性關係複雜…………………………………………………42 2.1.2.1.6 同性戀等同愛滋病……………………………………………………43 2.1.2.1.7 同性戀破壞宗教道德，影響社會安定………………………………44 2.1.2.1.8 同性戀者要求特殊權利………………………………………………44 2.1.2.1.9 同性戀對家庭構成威脅………………………………………………45 2.1.2.1.10 小結…………………………………………………………………46 2.1.2.2 現代科學的正面回應……………………………………………………………46 2.1.2.2.1 同性戀並非病態………………………………………………………46 2.1.2.2.2 同性戀作為一種精神疾病﹕從歷史的角度來看……………………48 2.1.2.2.3 同性戀從精神疾病除名………………………………………………50 2.1.2.2.4 同性戀的成因…………………………………………………………53 2.1.2.2.4.1 x染色體上的發現………………………………………55 2.1.2.2.4.2 生物醫學的研究：荷爾蒙與腦部構造變異……………56 2.1.2.2.4.3 後天環境論………………………………………………56 2.1.3 社會建構論對於同性戀的意義…………………………………………………………57 2.1.3.1 異性戀主義：同性戀刻板印象的形成與同性戀恐懼症………………………57 2.1.3.2 Foucault的社會建構理論………………………………………………………58 2.1.3.2.1 現代概念下的同性戀：一個性文化的興起…………………………58 2.1.3.2.2 Foucault的性理論……………………………………………………59 2.1.3.2.2.1 坦白是性之根本…………………………………………59 2.1.3.2.2.2 性科學……………………………………………………60 2.1.3.2.2.3 權力關係…………………………………………………61 2.1.3.2.2.4 建構主義…………………………………………………62 2.1.3.2.3 Foucault對性概念的重建……………………………………………62 2.1.3.2.3.1 性是否已成為一個不夠用的概念﹖……………………62 2.1.3.2.3.2 快感與慾望………………………………………………63 2.1.3.2.4 Foucault的性與同性戀政治觀………………………………………63 2.1.3.2.5 Foucault對同性戀關係的詮釋：友誼…………………………………64 2.2 自由主義的哲學基礎與隱私權保障…………………………………………………………65 2.2.1 同性戀者自由的界限：「俄芬登報告」的論爭………………………………………66 2.2.2 白紙上的墨漬：傷害與容忍的法的詮釋………………………………………………68 2.2.2.1 憲法上保障基本權利的性質及其界限…………………………………………69 2.2.2.2 傷害原則的具體化：憲法第二十三條的適用…………………………………69 2.2.2.3 基本權利的「容忍」義務？……………………………………………………70 2.2.2.4 同性戀的傷害性？………………………………………………………………70 2.2.2.4.1 破壞社會？回應社會解構論…………………………………………70 2.2.2.4.2 破壞家庭生活幸福……………………………………………………71 2.2.2.4.3 同性性行為容易傳染疾病……………………………………………72 2.2.2.4.4 小結……………………………………………………………………73 2.2.3 當代自由主義者的理論對於同性戀議題的實用………………………………………73 2.2.3.1 John Rawls的「政治自由主義」：權利的道德基礎與優先性…………………73 2.2.3.2 Ronald Dworkin的「倫理的自由平等」…………………………………………75 2.2.3.3 Joseph Raz的「至善論者自由主義」……………………………………………76 2.2.3.4 法律道德主義的「圍城」：德國戰後「新自然法」浪潮……………………77 2.2.3.5 自由主義法典範下對於同性戀者權利保障的危機……………………………79 2.2.4 理性與自治：自由主義下隱私權的保障目的…………………………………………80 2.2.4.1 理性的人：一個古老的哲學問題………………………………………………80 2.2.4.2 同性戀者是否為理性的人？……………………………………………………82 2.2.5. Richard Posner的「法律經濟分析」……………………………………………………84 2.2.5.1 功效主義與同性戀………………………………………………………………84 2.2.5.2 Posner的法律經濟分析與同性戀者權利保障…………………………………87 2.2.5.2.1 Posner的性理論與同性戀……………………………………………87 2.2.5.2.2 Posner理論的適用……………………………………………………89 2.2.6 小結………………………………………………………………………………………90 2.3 平等權保障……………………………………………………………………………………90 2.3.1 一個新歷史的開始：Romer v. Evans……………………………………………………91 2.3.1.1 背景事實與纏訟經過……………………………………………………………91 2.3.1.2 多數意見…………………………………………………………………………94 2.3.1.3 不同意見…………………………………………………………………………95 2.3.1.4 Romer案的評析及其影響………………………………………………………97 2.3.1.4.1 本質原則對於平等權審查基準的定位………………………………98 2.3.1.4.2 同性戀者在憲法上的定位不明………………………………………98 2.3.1.4.3 Hardwick案於Romer案的關係懸而未決……………………………99 2.3.1.4.4 民主價值與憲法基本權利保障……………………………………100 2.3.2 同性戀者平等權審查基準的選擇……………………………………………………101 2.3.2.1 平等權審查基準的概說………………………………………………………101 2.3.2.2 從「性別歧視」主張同性戀者平等權：中度審查基準的適用………………102 2.3.2.2.1 性別歧視審查基準的早期見解……………………………………102 2.3.2.2.2 性別歧視的新視點…………………………………………………103 2.3.2.2.3 中度審查基準的形成………………………………………………104 2.3.2.2.4 「性傾向歧視」是「性別歧視」？性別角色的迷思………………106 2.3.2.3 同性戀作為「可疑分類」︰適用「嚴格審查基準」的坦途？………………108 2.3.2.3.1 缺乏政治力量………………………………………………………110 2.3.2.3.2 「隔離但平等」與「不同但平等」…………………………………111 2.3.2.3.3 與生俱來、不可改變的特徵…………………………………………112 2.3.2.3.4 小結…………………………………………………………………113 第三章 同性性行為的除罪化 3.1 從社會生物學看同性戀與同性性行為……………………………………………………115 3.1.1 社會生物學概說………………………………………………………………………115 3.1.2 社會生物學與同性戀…………………………………………………………………117 3.1.3 同性性行為是「不自然」？……………………………………………………………121 3.1.3.1 描述性的自然法則……………………………………………………………121 3.1.3.2 「人為的」就是不自然…………………………………………………………122 3.1.3.3 凡是不常見或不正常的東西不自然…………………………………………123 3.1.3.4 與一個器官或工具的主要目的或功能相反的使用方式不自然……………124 3.1.3.5 凡是不自然的就是不好的……………………………………………………125 3.2 各國管制現況與除罪化趨勢………………………………………………………………126 3.2.1 美國雞姦法在憲法上的爭議…………………………………………………………126 3.2.1.1 性行為管制的憲法爭議：隱私權的保障範圍…………………………………127 3.2.1.2 隱私權保障的負面教材：Bowers v. Hardwick…………………………………129 3.2.1.2.1 一個不存在的事實：事實與判決經過………………………………129 3.2.1.2.2 多數意見……………………………………………………………131 3.2.1.2.3 協同意見……………………………………………………………133 3.2.1.2.4 不同意見……………………………………………………………134 3.2.1.3 Hardwick案的評析及其對同性戀者平權運動的影響………………………138 3.2.1.3.1 本案應不應該受理？………………………………………………138 3.2.1.3.2 隱私權保障的目的…………………………………………………140 3.2.1.3.3 性行為受隱私權保障的範圍：滑坡論證的疑慮……………………141 3.2.1.3.4 創設基本權利類型的理由：歷史傳統？……………………………142 3.2.1.3.5 法律與道德的界限…………………………………………………142 3.2.1.3.6 Hardwick案對同性戀者權利保障的影響…………………………142 3.2.1.3.6.1 行為與地位的混淆……………………………………142 3.2.1.3.6.2 公領域與私領域的切割………………………………143 3.2.2 美國經驗的對照：歐洲國家與全球同性性行為除罪化的努力………………………143 3.2.2.1 歐洲同性性行為的管制歷史…………………………………………………144 3.2.2.2 歐洲人權法院的判決分析……………………………………………………144 3.2.2.2.1 保障範圍……………………………………………………………145 3.2.2.2.2 侵害類型與干涉程度………………………………………………146 3.2.2.2.3 比例原則……………………………………………………………149 3.2.2.2.4 「歐洲共識」…………………………………………………………151 3.2.2.3 同性性行為作為一種普遍人權………………………………………………152 3.3 我國關於同性性行為與刑法管制的可能議題……………………………………………154 3.3.1 刑法「性別意識」與「姦淫」、「猥褻」的定義……………………………………154 3.3.1.1 同性戀及其性行為的刑法評價………………………………………………154 3.3.1.2 刑法的性別意識………………………………………………………………155 3.3.2 合法性行為同意年齡…………………………………………………………………160 3.3.3 後天免疫症候群防治條例與性行為告知義務………………………………………162 第四章 同性婚姻的合法化 4.1 同性婚姻的歷史與正反意見的陳述………………………………………………………166 4.1.1 婚姻的意義及其對同性戀者的重要性………………………………………………166 4.1.1.1 不只是「婚姻」…………………………………………………………………166 4.1.1.2 同性戀社群內部對婚姻的爭論………………………………………………168 4.1.2 同性婚姻的歷史………………………………………………………………………170 4.1.3 反對同性婚姻的主要理由及其反駁…………………………………………………171 4.2 同性婚姻在各國的憲法爭議與法律實踐…………………………………………………173 4.2.1 美國同性婚姻的憲法爭議……………………………………………………………173 4.2.1.1 同性婚姻的爭訟………………………………………………………………173 4.2.1.1.1 Baker v. Nelson………………………………………………………173 4.2.1.1.2 Jones v. Hallahan……………………………………………………175 4.2.1.1.3 Singer v. Hara………………………………………………………176 4.2.1.1.4 Adams v. Howerton…………………………………………………179 4.2.1.1.5 Dean v.District of Columbia(Barry)…………………………………181 4.2.1.1.6 小結：結婚權的憲法意義……………………………………………182 4.2.1.1.6.1 隱私權與結婚權………………………………………182 4.2.1.1.6.2 結婚權與婚姻的社會意義……………………………183 4.2.1.2 Baehr v. Lewin(Baehr I)…………………………………………………………185 4.2.1.2.1 事實及爭訟經過……………………………………………………185 4.2.1.2.2 多數意見……………………………………………………………185 4.2.1.2.3 協同意見……………………………………………………………187 4.2.1.2.4 不同意見……………………………………………………………187 4.2.1.3 Baehr v. Miike(Baehr II)………………………………………………………190 4.2.1.3.1 事實及爭訟經過……………………………………………………190 4.2.1.3.2 法院意見……………………………………………………………191 4.2.1.4 Baehr二案的評析及其影響……………………………………………………193 4.2.1.5 「防衛婚姻法」的合憲性………………………………………………………194 4.2.1.5.1 「防衛婚姻法」的制定與其內容……………………………………195 4.2.1.5.2 「防衛婚姻法」的合憲性：Romer一案的適用……………………196 4.2.1.6 平等的極致：「滑坡論證」的失序挑戰………………………………………199 4.2.1.6.1 禁止童婚與同性婚姻………………………………………………200 4.2.1.6.2 禁止一夫多妻與同性婚姻…………………………………………201 4.2.1.6.3 禁止亂倫與同性婚姻………………………………………………202 4.2.1.6.4 小結…………………………………………………………………204 4.2.2 歐洲人權公約對於同性婚姻的保障…………………………………………………204 4.2.2.1 家庭關係的隱私權保障………………………………………………………205 4.2.2.2 婚姻權的保障…………………………………………………………………206 4.2.2.3 「禁止歧視」條款與同性婚姻…………………………………………………208 4.2.2.3.1 適用範圍及其限制…………………………………………………208 4.2.2.3.2 合理審查基準………………………………………………………209 4.2.2.3.3 「比例原則」審查基準………………………………………………211 4.2.3 「婚姻」定義的突破：加拿大最高法院M v. H判決…………………………………212 4.2.3.1 背景事實………………………………………………………………………212 4.2.3.2 多數意見………………………………………………………………………213 4.2.3.3 不同意見………………………………………………………………………214 4.2.3.4 本案評析及其影響……………………………………………………………214 4.2.4 同性婚姻在全球各國的制度實現……………………………………………………215 4.2.4.1 實質法律保障：伴侶登記或認可法……………………………………………216 4.2.4.1.1 從契約到身分………………………………………………………216 4.2.4.1.2 從身分到契約………………………………………………………218 4.2.4.2 現行制度的適用與評估………………………………………………………219 4.2.4.2.1 北歐國家對於同性婚姻態度開放的原因…………………………219 4.2.4.2.2 異性戀婚姻適用於同性戀者的評估………………………………220 4.3 我國同性婚姻合法性的憲法挑戰…………………………………………………………220 4.3.1 中國傳統下對婚姻的看法……………………………………………………………221 4.3.2 現行民法下同性婚姻的合法性及其衍生議題………………………………………221 4.3.3 同性婚姻合法化在我國的可能性：大法官解釋的評估………………………………224 4.3.3.1 性別歧視下的平等：我國大法官對於「男女平等」的解釋…………………224 4.3.3.1.1 釋字第三六五號解釋/男女「合理」差別待遇︰多合理？…………224 4.3.3.1.2 釋字第二四二號解釋/「婚姻」作為「制度性保障」………………229 4.3.3.1.3 小結…………………………………………………………………235 4.3.3.2 我國憲法第七條「男女平等」與同性戀平等權保障…………………………235 4.3.3.2.1 憲法文本的詮釋……………………………………………………235 4.3.3.2.2 性解放下的男女平等………………………………………………237 4.3.3.3 小結……………………………………………………………………………239 第五章 結論：同性戀與憲法-兼論台灣同性戀者權利保障的未來 5.1 平權運動策略建言…………………………………………………………………………240 5.1.1 建立共識，尋求認同…………………………………………………………………240 5.1.2 具體可行的目標………………………………………………………………………241 5.1.2.1 組織化…………………………………………………………………………241 5.1.2.2 持續化…………………………………………………………………………242 5.1.2.3 議題化…………………………………………………………………………242 5.1.2.4 司法化…………………………………………………………………………243 5.2 法律修正方向與司法審查基準……………………………………………………………243 5.2.1 國際人權公約與內國法律……………………………………………………………243 5.2.2 制定反歧視法？………………………………………………………………………244 5.2.3 司法審查基準…………………………………………………………………………245 表次 表1-1：同性戀者權利保障議題一覽表 ………………………………………………………………11 表2-1：Romer v. Evans案判決意見一覽表……………………………………………………………96 表2-2：美國最高法院三重審查基準一覽表…………………………………………………………106 表3-1：Bowers v. Hardwick案判決意見一覽表………………………………………………………136 表4-1：Baehr v. Lewin案判決意見一覽表……………………………………………………………189 表4-2：Baehr v. Miike案判決意見一覽表……………………………………………………………193 表4-3：種族、性別與性傾向歧視之類推過程一覽表………………………………………………194 表4-4：司法院大法官有關性別平等解釋案要旨……………………………………………………232 / "Lesbian and gay rights are human rights!" Is this just a political slogan to be chanted outsides legislatures? Is this just a fairytale, or are there legal arguments to support the claim that the right to be free from sexual orientation discrimination is a human right? In particular, can national constitutions and international human right treaties be interpreted as prohibiting discrimination against same-sex sexual activity ("sodomy"), gay, lesbian, bisexual and transsexual individuals, and same-sex couples? In this thesis, the author attempts to answer these questions by examining of these most commonly used arguments in favour of such an interpretation: sexual orientation is an "immutable status", sexual orientation is a "fundamental choice" or part of "privacy", sexual orientation discrimination is sex discrimination and "sexual orientation discrimination". However, the core argument is always "Equal Protection". Chapter I explains the motives of research, the goals to be achieved, the methods to be used, and the structure of this thesis. Chapter II investigates what and how to build the basic theories to justify the claim that lesbians and gay men, as well as heterosexuals, shall be equally protected under the constitution. Because this issue is largely invisible or marginalised in academic debate, the author first provides an invaluable exploration of sociology, sociobiology, and sexual science, in order to break up the stereotypes of lesbians and gay men. According to the theory of Equal Protection, the author concluded that "sexual orientation discrimination" deserved the strict or heightened scrutiny, i.e., either the discrimination achieves the compelling or overriding governmental interest, necessarily and narrowly tailored, or it should be hold unconstitutional. Applying the basic theories, then the author devoted two chapters to specific issues, particularly, and focused on sodomy law and same-sex marriage. Chapter III examines the constitutionality of sodomy law. According to the "Harm Principle", the author doesn't think that sexual activities between consenting adults should be criminalized. Although sodomy law is plainly neutral, i.e., applicable for men and women, homosexual and heterosexual individuals, the author found that, in practice, sodomy law always criminalize lesbian and gay men. The author also discussed relevant articles of Taiwan's Penal Code, especially the newly revised articles of sex crime-crime of "disturbing sexual autonomy". Chapter IV scrutinizes the constitutionality of same-sex marriage. The author first analyzed why people are always reluctant to recognize the same-sex marriage, and reiterate the so-called "slippery slope" arguments. The judiciary around the world never decided clearly that lesbians and gay men could legally wed, until the Hawaii Supreme Court held the Hawaii Revised Statutes §572-1 unconstitutional. Inspiringly by a recent development that the Canada Supreme Court declared positively the word "spouse" does not exclusively mean the combination of a man and a woman. This is , in indeed, a milestone in rhetoric. According to the "per se rule", the author also strongly criticized the "Defense of Marriage Act"(DOMA), and claimed that DOMA should be held unconstitutional. After comparing the institutions substantially protected same-sex couples, i.e., "registered partnership" or "domestic partnership", the author concluded such institutions as phase work. However, the final task is to make lesbians and gay men legally wed, just like "human being in love". Chapter V summarized the findings and suggested measures for further improvement. The author hopes to remind domestic gay organizations of the importance to use judicial approach solving the issue of equal protection for lesbian and gay men. After bloody wars and tragic disasters, why people can not learn to treat "others" as "selves"? Some day, lesbians and gay men can walk hand in hand with one's love in bright sunshine. Wish is not a dream. Keywords: Gay; Lesbian; Homosexuality; Queer; Equal Protection; Review Standards; Same-Sex Marriage; Sodomy; Privacy; Liberalism; Economic Analysis of Law; Social Constructionalism; Defense of Marriage Act.

In the Commedia of Dante, a poem 14,233 lines in length, some 7,500 words occur only once. These are the hapax. Fewer than 2% of these constitute a minute but distinct subset—the hapax for which there are one or more words in the poem whose spelling is identical but whose meaning is different. These are what I call same-spelling hapax. I identify four categories: partof- speech, homograph, locus, and name. Examination of the same-spelling hapax illuminates a poetic strategy continuously in use throughout the poem. This is to use the one-word coinciding of Rhyme’s rhyme number and terzina’s line number. Not only is it highly probable that a samespelling hapax will be a rhyme-word, but it is also probable that it will occupy a rhyme-word’s most significant position—the one place—the single word—where the two intertwined formal entities that shape each canto coincide. Every three lines, their tension-resolving this-word-only union intensifies the reader’s attention and understanding alike.