Pandemins framfart har påverkat den svenska detaljhandeln negativt i många avseenden. Flertalet rapporter från aktörer inom fastighetsbranschen har indikerat på en negativ prisutveckling på transaktionsmarknaden och nedåtgående marknadshyror som en direkt konsekvens av pandemin. Lokalhyresmarknaden har därför ställts inför nya förutsättningar som har förändrat förhållandet mellan hyresvärd och hyresgäst. Ovissheten inför framtiden och rädslan för oönskad vakans har medfört en ekonomisk risk för avtalsparterna. Den förändrade marknaden har således skapat nya behov för att kunna hantera förändrade konsumentmönster, restriktiv investeringsvilja och nedåtgående marknadshyror. God avtalsflexibilitet har under pandemin visat sig vara ett effektivt verktyg för att dels skydda det ekonomiska värdet som ett hyresavtal implicerar men även parternas egna intressen.   Studiens syfte är att undersöka hur behovet av flexibla avtalsvillkor i standardavtalet 12.B2 har ökat som en direkt konsekvens av de nya marknadsförutsättningarna som pandemin har gett upphov till. Uppsatsen skall identifiera och belysa relevanta avvikelser i standardavtalet 12.B2 samt hur dessa förändringar har hanterat den ekonomiska risken för avtalsparterna. Studien tar även upp efterfrågan på avtalsflexibilitet som inte har kunnat tillgodoses på grund av hyresvärdens och hyresgästens skilda intressen. Behovet för föränderliga avtal diskuteras sedan i sammanhanget av upprätthållandet av det ekonomiska värdet som ett avtalsförhållande antyder. Uppsatsen har grundats på en kvalitativ metod där semistrukturerade intervjuer har varit den primära källan för underlaget som diskuteras.  Samtliga respondenter har reflekterat hur omständigheterna har sett ut under pandemin och hur avtalsparterna har gått till väga för att anpassa sig till den förändrade marknaden. Alla respondenter angav att både hyresvärd och hyresgäst har eftersökt flexibilitet. Det framgår att flexibla hyresavtal har primärt fungerat som ett ekonomiskt redskap för att driva fram det egna intresset. Studien har visat på att samtliga parter i ett avtalsförhållande bör identifiera ekonomiska fördelar för att flexibiliteten skall kunna nyttjas till sin fulla potential. Trots stor efterfrågan på anpassningsbara avtalsformer under pandemin har man inte kunnat tillgodose alla önskemål, i synnerhet inte hyresgästens behov för anpassningsbara öppettider. / The recent pandemic has had a negative impact on the Swedish retail market in many aspects. The majority of the reports about the economical consequences as a result of the pandemic have indicated negative price developments in the transaction market and falling market rents. The retail rental market has therefore been faced with new conditions that have changed the relationship between the landlord and the tenant. Uncertainty about the future and fear of unwanted vacancy have led to vast financial risks for the parties. The changed market has thus created new needs to be able to handle changing consumer patterns, restrictive investment willingness and falling market rents. During the pandemic, good contractual flexibility has proved to be an effective tool to protect the economic value of a rental agreement, but also the interests of the parties themselves.  The main aim of the study is to examine how the need for flexible contractual terms in the standard contract 12.B2 has changed as a direct consequence of the new market conditions that the pandemic has created. The thesis should identify and highlight relevant deviations in the standard agreement 12.B2 and how these changes have managed the financial risk for the parties of the agreement. The study also addresses the demand for contractual flexibility that has not been met due to the different interests of the landlord and the tenant. The need for changing contracts is then discussed in the context of maintaining the economic value implied by a contractual relationship. The essay has been based on a qualitative method where semi-structured interviews have been the primary source for the material being discussed. All respondents have reflected on the situation during the pandemic and how the parties within a contract have  adapted to the changed market. The respondents indicated that both the landlord and the tenant had sought flexibility. It can be seen that flexible rental agreements have primarily served as an economic tool to protect their own interests. The study has shown that all parties in a contractual relationship should identify economic benefits in order to make full use of flexibility. Despite strong demand for adaptable forms of contracts during the pandemic, it has not been possible to meet all requests, especially the tenants' needs for adaptable opening hours.

En el presente trabajo se desarrollarán los aspectos normativos y técnicos sobre el uso de las radios electromagnéticas que emanan las antes de telefonía móvil para garantizar un buen servicio a los administrados. Sin embargo, existe controversia si dicha utilización ocasiona deterioros a la salud de las personas y al medio ambiente, toda vez que por un lado el Tribunal Constitucional peruano ha reiterado, en sus diversos pronunciamientos, que no existe prueba científica que compruebe que su utilización ocasione perjuicio a dichos derechos; y, por otro lado, la Corte Suprema de Justicia del Perú al emitir su pronunciamiento en la Sentencia Casatoria N.° ° 28162-2017 indicó que puede no es necesario la existencia de un informe técnico- científico que señale que su utilización puede ocasionar un perjuicio en los acotados derechos, ya que lo que se busca garantizar es el principio precautorio. Lo anterior expuesto es explicado desde los enfoques normativos y jurisprudenciales para determinar si el criterio del Tribunal Constitucional es válido en relación a que las ondas electromagnéticas no son perjudiciales para la salud y el medio ambiente

[pt] Essa tese estuda o impacto de mecanismos contratuais no valor de operações de fusões e aquisições e propõe três modelos distintos de avaliação. Ademais, sob a ótica da Teoria dos Contratos, ressaltamos o impacto do comportamento dos agentes nas características das cláusulas utilizadas ou ainda no sucesso da transação. Primeiro, desenvolvemos um modelo para earnouts fornecendo fundamentos para como essa cláusula em particular deve ser estruturada e como seu valor deve ser estimado, especialmente considerando sua similaridade com opções. Além disso, testamos diferentes formatos para o earnout, como opção binária e opção de compra. Segundo, modelamos a cláusula de anti-diluição, a qual proporciona uma proteção adicional para investidores, em especial no contexto de Venture Capital. Anti-diluição tem papel fundamental como seguro para investidores contra rodadas de investimento futuras com valuation abaixo do que fora previamente pago pelo investidor. Por fim, desenvolvemos um modelo de avaliação para preferência de liquidação, a qual também pode ser uma alternativa de garantia para investidores em operações de fusões e aquisições. Preferência de liquidação é tipicamente definida como o direito do investidor em receber seu investimento adicionado de um determinado montante em caso de algum evento de liquidação, em preferência os demais acionistas. Os resultados indicam que os mecanismos contratuais largamente utilizados em operações de fusões e aquisições tem impacto relevante no valor justo da transação. Adicionalmente, os resultados sugerem que os mecanismos contratuais são importantes ferramentas para mitigar o risco para investidores, viabilizando determinadas operações que se tornariam inviáveis, especialmente ao considerarmos a assimetria de informação entre comprador e vendedor. / [en] This thesis studies the impact of contractual mechanisms in MeA valuation deals and proposes three models to evaluate them. Also, under the Contract Theory lens, we draw attention to the parties behavior and its impact on clauses settings or transaction success. First, we develop a model for earnouts and provide the foundation for understanding how they might best be structured and how their value might be estimated, especially considering their similarity to financial options. Furthermore, we also test different features for the earnout, such as binary options and a combination of binary and call options. Second, we model the anti-dilution covenant, which provides additional protection for investors, especially in a venture capital context. Antidilution plays an important role as insurance for venture capitalists against down round, which is a subsequent financing event at a lower valuation. Lastly, we developed a valuation model for liquidation preference, which can be an alternative guarantee for investors in MeA deals. Liquidation preference is typically defined as the right of the investor (usually holding preference shares), to receive its investment amount plus a certain agreed percentage of the proceeds in the event of a liquidation of the company, in preference over the other shareholders. Our findings indicate that the typical legal covenants used in MeA deals have a relevant impact on their fair value and may work as important tools to bridge the gap between the buyer and the seller, especially considering the information asymmetry on this context. On the other hand, depending on the clauses settings, the risk may be too skewed to the seller side, making the deal structure too expensive under his perspective. By testing the model s parameters sensitivity, we provided the inputs the seller needs to evaluate and pursue the optimal contractual terms.

Markåtkomst för nybebyggelse av allmänna ledningar sker på flera olika sätt. Användning av markområdet kan säkerställs genom ett tvångsvis ägobyte med expropriation enligt expropriationslag. Främst används dock ledningsrätt via en lantmäteriförrättning eller frivilliga överenskommelser som grundas i upplåtelseformerna avtalsservitut eller nyttjanderätt. Markupplåtelse innebär att ledningsägaren har rätt att nyttja marken inom avtalets ramar. Innan byggstart är det nödvändigt att det projekterade underlaget prövas och att tillstånd meddelas av tillsynsansvarig. När de obligatoriska villkoren är uppfyllda är det möjligt att påbörja anordnandet. Arbetet är avgränsat till fyra olika ledningstyper, elektroniska kommunikations-ledningar, elledningar, VA-ledningar och fjärrvärmeledningar. Var och en representerar en av de totalt fyra kategorierna för vilka allmännyttiga ledningar kan upplåts med ledningsrätt (ledningsrättslagen 2 § 1 st.). För att få en uppfattning om förfarandet i praktiken intervjuas åtta personer som har hand om markåtkomsten för olika ledningsägare. Utredningen innehåller en jämförelse av tillvägagångssättet för större ledningar som förstärker nätet med en lång sträckning. Gentemot ledningar inom ett lokalnät, båda i tätorter och utanför, som ansluts direkt till kunden. Jämförelsen utförs med avseende på ledningstyp. Utifrån det samlade underlaget är det tydligt att ledningsägarna vill träffa frivilliga överenskommelse med fastighetsägaren i alla situationer. Ledningstyp har en viss påverkan, i synnerhet gällande ledningar som omfattas av linjekoncession. Fiberbolag (elektronisk kommunikation) använder sig nästintill uteslutet av nyttjanderätt. Markåtkomstprocessen för VA-ledningar, fjärrvärmeledningar och elledningar är slående lika. Bolagen för all tre ledningstyperna använder markavtal på kommunalägd mark. En skillnad är att VA-anläggningar är kommunalägda eller styrda av kommunala bolag. Därför är samarbetet starkare med kommunen. För lokalnät vill ledningsägarna helst använda sig av avtalsservitut (markupplåtelseavtal) för privata fastighetsägare samt standardiserade markavtal för kommun och större fastighetsägare. Gällande större distributionsledningar strävar ledningsägarna efter att träffa frivilliga överenskommelse först som sedan omvandlas till ledningsrätt. Fjärrvärmeledningar och elledningar upprättar sina avtal med hjälp av branchorganisationen Energiföretagen Sveriges standardmallar. / For new construction of public utility lines, land can get claimed in different ways. Use of the land area can be secured through a forced change of ownership with expropriation according to the Expropriation Act. Primarily, utility easements are used with a land surveying procedure or voluntary agreements that are based on the grant forms contractual easements or usufruct. With a land grant, the utility line owner gets the right to use the land according to the agreement. Prior to the construction of the utility line, it is necessary that the projected basis is tested and permission issued. When the mandatory conditions are met, it is possible to start the construction. This paper is limited to four different line types, electricity lines, VA lines, district heating lines and electronic communication lines. Each one represents one of the totals of four categories for which utility lines are granted according to the Utility Easement Act. To get an idea of the procedure in practice, eight people who are in charge of land access for utility line owners are interviewed. The purpose is to investigate the approach when it comes to larger regional lines that reinforce the network and have a long coverage that does not branch out too much. Compared to lines within a local network both in built-up and outside built-up areas, that connect direct to the customers. Based on the collected information, it is clear that the utility line owner wants to reach a voluntary agreement with the property owner. Utility line type has a certain influence, in particular for line concession lines. Fiber lines (electronic communication) are used almost exclusively with usufruct. VA lines, district heating lines and power lines ground access process is strikingly similar. One difference is that VA facilities are municipally owned or managed by municipal companies. Therefore, the collaboration is stronger with the municipality, however, all public utility lines owners strive to form land agreements on municipally owned land. For local networks, the managers prefer to use contractual easement for private property owners and special land agreements (usufruct) for municipalities and larger property owners. Regarding larger distribution lines, they strive to reach voluntary agreements which are then converted into utility easements. District heating lines and power lines companies draw up their agreements with the help of the branch organization Energiföretagen Sverige's standard templates.

Research on Voluntary Information Disclosure (VID) has been of interest in several disciplines including, but not limited to, entrepreneurship, accounting, finance, law, and marketing. Although there has been extensive research on VID aimed at financial market investors, scant research in marketing exists on VID targeted at prospective business partners that can influence firm future performance significantly. Financial and marketing disclosures have been advocated for by investors and public policymakers as they mitigate the adverse selection problems between the firm and its stakeholders (e.g., investors, customers, and prospective channel partners). Managers are, however somewhat skeptical about its outcomes because of the cost of disclosures (i.e., ex-ante costs of collecting, processing and disseminating the information, ex-post costs of conflicts and litigations, competitive position and proprietary costs). My dissertation consists of three essays on voluntary disclosure of performance metrics in marketing channels and aims to enhance our understanding of the antecedents and consequences of such VIDs. The first essay examines the antecedents of ex-ante VID for standardized contracts in marketing channels. Prior literature in accounting, entrepreneurship, and marketing has investigated drivers of information disclosures to analysts, investors, and customers. Nonetheless, this study bridges the gap in examining why some firms disclose information to prospective channel partners when it cost them to do so and makes the firms vulnerable to competitors. If the disclosure is a signal of quality, we are also interested in knowing whether it is a substitute for other signals of quality or a complement. I draw on signaling and institutional theories to develop a theoretical framework and empirically test it through econometric analyses of multi-sector panel data for the U.S. franchising industry. The results suggest that firms (e.g., franchisors) make such disclosures to prospective business partners (e.g., franchisees) in order to signal profitability of partnering, to attract financial and managerial resources, and develop their entrepreneurial networks. This study contributes to signaling theory literature by investigating organizational quality signaling, providing empirical evidence for drivers of multiple signaling and shedding light on the conflicting views on substitutability or complementarity of multiple quality signals. The study has implications for managers who wish to attract potential business partners through signaling profitability of their business. Furthermore, there are some insights for regulators on the debate on making voluntary disclosures mandatory. The second essay examines the performance consequences of i) signaling through ex-ante voluntary disclosure of performance metrics and ii) screening through selection standards, in the formation stage of new partnerships in marketing channels. It is essential for many entrepreneurial business networks to expand their channel by attracting business partners while still preventing low-quality partners from joining the network. However, information asymmetry between the two parties introduces a double-sided adverse selection problem to the relationship. In other words, the heterogeneous quality - the ability to perform the job - of each party (i.e., the focal firm or the prospective partner) is unknown to the other party. To date, most of the empirical studies have addressed the issue from only one side, either from the perspective of the buyer or the supplier, and have assumed that the other side is open to the relationship. However, in a selective inter-firm relationship that both parties have the option to select the other party, adverse selection problems should be resolved for both of them to enhance the performance of the partnership. To bridge this gap in the literature (i.e., to mitigate double-sided adverse selection problems), I propose a novel framework based on signaling and transaction cost theories. This study suggests and empirically examines a complementary effect of the simultaneous use of signaling and screening on the firm performance. I integrate secondary data from various sources to shape a unique multi-sector panel data set that allows for assessment of the effects of these predictors on firm performance over time through a rigorous econometric model. Contrary to some claims in the extant literature, the results demonstrate that rigorous screening process hurts the firm performance unless it is combined with a proper quality signaling mechanism. This study contributes to the B2B marketing literature and provides implications for practitioners by shedding light on the performance implications of channel governance mechanisms such as signaling and screening. Further, it provides empirical support for the effects of B2B marketing strategies on firm sales revenue growth. The third essay looks closely into the voluntary disclosure of performance metrics. In the previous studies, the decision to disclose is operationalized as a binary variable of whether a firm discloses or not. In the absence of comprehensive regulation, disclosure strategies are subject to significant variation amongst firms, but can also vary over time within an individual firm. Through a content analysis of disclosure documents and scrutiny of the different components that comprise them, I explore the impact of disclosure content on firm performance. This study attempts to reconcile conflicting views of managers, investors, analysts, and regulators. On the one hand, VID should positively impact firm performance through mitigating information asymmetry. On the other hand, skeptical managers make the argument that VID negatively impacts a firm’s performance through costs of preparation, dissemination, potential litigation, and competition. Using a sample of publicly traded restaurant chains in the U.S., I empirically assess firm performance as a function of the disclosure strategy and its interactions with the firm’s characteristics and governance mechanisms. I collect independent variables from the firms’ disclosures through content analysis of public documents and obtain performance metrics of the firms in the stock market from Compustat. This study provides a novel context within which to investigate whether and how financial markets look at the firm’s disclosure behavior in dealing with its prospective channel partners, and it contributes to marketing-finance interface literature. My dissertation is positioned in the marketing strategy-entrepreneurship interface domain and is a multi-faceted study that looks at the phenomenon of VID from different angles and provides implications for several stakeholders. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Distribution channel strategy has a long-term effect on firm performance, is associated with considerable irreversible costs, and can constitute a sustainable asset and competitive advantage for firms. Information asymmetry among the distribution channel members has been known as the basis of opportunistic actions in such exchange relationships. My dissertation research investigates drivers and consequences of information disclosure strategies and is focused on the firms’ voluntary disclosure of performance metrics at the inter-firm relationship formation stage of developing marketing channels. This dissertation consists of three inter-related essays. In the first one, I study drivers of voluntary information disclosures to prospective channel partners. Then, I investigate the performance consequences of such disclosures and their interactions with channel governance mechanisms such as screening, in the second study. Since firms are heterogeneous in the content of their disclosures, in the third study, I conduct a content analysis of the firm’s disclosures to understand its influence on firm performance. Based on Organizational Economics theories and Institutional Theory, I develop my theoretical frameworks and test them empirically using archival data. The empirical context for my work is the franchising industry because it is the most common type of partner-based retail system and is a significant component of the US economy as well as other developed countries and emerging economies. The research findings offer both theoretical and practical implications for researchers and practitioners and contribute to the literatures on signaling and transaction cost theories as well as information disclosure and franchising.

El presente resumen ejecutivo corresponde a la Tesis para optar el grado de Magíster en Derecho de la Empresa. Titulo: «EL CONTRATO “INVULNERABLE” Y LA GESTIÓN AMBIENTAL AD HOC: una interpretación jurídica para la creación de un sistema civil-ambiental de tutela preventiva de la biodiversidad y la biotecnología». Autor: Joseph Mejía Guevara Área de investigación: Nuestra investigación puede ubicarse dentro de las llamadas interdisciplinas, debido a que su desarrollo implicó necesarias vinculaciones entre el Derecho civil, el Derecho administrativo y el Derecho ambiental (específicamente en materia de tutela de la biodiversidad y de protección indirecta de las expectativas de desarrollo de la ciencia y tecnología). Tema: Se estudia las implicancias de los deberes de protección contractuales (de naturaleza civil) dentro del sistema de tutelas preventivas (ambientales) para la protección de la biodiversidad. Justificación: La situación jurídica particular que contribuye al acaecimiento del conflicto socioambiental, y que justifica el presente estudio, se da por la aparente imposibilidad jurídica de implementar normas y/o dispositivos de protección del medio ambiente (particularmente relacionadas a la tutela de la biodiversidad), con posterioridad a la celebración del contrato de concesión; y que regulen la conducta de las empresas concesionarias a través de la aplicación ad hoc de los deberes de protección contractuales, con la finalidad de evitar perjuicios sobrevinientes al equilibrio ecológico. Pregunta de la investigación: ¿Pueden implementarse mecanismos normativos de protección civil y/o ambiental para la tutela del medio ambiente con posterioridad a la celebración del contrato de explotación de recursos naturales sin afectar los términos contractuales? Hipótesis: Sí se pueden elaborar y ejecutar normas de tutela preventiva para la protección de la biodiversidad después de la celebración de un contrato de concesión. Motivación: En general, nuestra motivación se sustenta en el interés por develar la existencia de ciertos principios de la contratación pública (fundamentalmente, en el caso del contrato de explotación de recursos naturales o el de concesión) que permitan al Estado ejercitar sus potestades regulatorias y de gestión con posterioridad a la celebración del acuerdo. Marco teórico: La presente investigación analizó tres presupuestos teóricos. El primero de ellos es el relativo a la trascendencia en sede civil de los deberes de protección contractuales; el segundo, es el de la relevancia y exigencia de dichos deberes de protección contractuales en el ámbito de la contratación pública y específicamente en el de la concesión de recursos energéticos no renovables; y, finalmente, la posibilidad legal de que se puedan implementar dispositivos legales, después de la celebración del contrato de concesión, que le permitan al ejecutivo proteger ágilmente dos intereses públicos que, leídos en clave de derechos subjetivos públicos, determinen, por un lado, la tutela más efectiva de los recursos no renovables y, de otro lado, contribuyan a incentivar el desarrollo de la ciencia y la tecnología a través de la tutela indirecta de la expectativa de desarrollo científico.

En el presente trabajo de investigación se analizará la importancia o no de la acreditación del daño moral en el proceso laboral; dicho análisis se realiza a raíz de las posiciones jurisprudenciales contradictorias suscitadas en los Plenarios Jurisdiccionales de los años 2018 y 2019. Debiendo de entender que si bien los jueces laborales son competentes para conocer aquellos procesos sobre la responsabilidad por daño patrimonial o extrapatrimonial como consecuencia de una relación jurídica laboral, la figura jurídica de la responsabilidad civil, está regulada en el Código Civil; por tanto, debe de cumplirse con lo señalo en dicho dispositivo legal así como analizar cada uno de sus elementos (conducta antijurídica, daño, relación de causalidad y factor de atribución). Es así que, mediante el empleo del método jurisprudencial (dado que es en los órganos jurisdiccionales donde se resuelven las controversias sobre el tema de nuestra investigación) se ha establecido como objetivo principal del presente trabajo es el demostrar si nuestra jurisprudencia judicial frente a la existencia de un posible daño moral derivado de un despido ilícito que posición asume, es decir, es necesario que dentro del proceso laboral se requiera algún medio probatorio que identifique la veracidad de la existencia de este sufrimiento adicional o, en su defecto, pueden los indicios o presunciones llevar a crear una convicción al menos justificada en el juzgador de que efectivamente se ha producido un daño. Dicho objetivo es importante, porque concluye con la incertidumbre jurídica, que actualmente existe sobre este tema, respecto a si los órganos jurisdiccionales asumen una posición errónea o no; dado que, por un lado tenemos, que el juez está en la libertad de poder seguir según su discrecionalidad el criterio que crea más conveniente de acuerdo a su interpretación jurídica del caso en concreto, y por el otro lado, tenemos la predictibilidad que tiene cada ciudadano de que su caso se resolverá conforme a lo estipulado en la ley. Por último, tenemos también que actualmente no existe una uniformidad respecto al cálculo de la cuantía de los daños patrimoniales y extra patrimoniales; siendo ello también un gran problema frente a estos procesos en donde existe responsabilidad civil contractual por parte del empleador, pero la problemática sobre: ¿Cómo se debe de cuantificar el daño moral? o ¿qué método se debe emplear para la cuantificación del daño? no será parte de la presente investigación.

Le corps humain n’a pas échappé au mouvement de contractualisation protéiforme qui se généralise. En ce sens, notre thèse a permis de démontrer l’existence d’une nouvelle catégorie juridique : celle du contrat portant sur le corps humain. Il s’agit d’un genre contractuel qui abrite de nombreuses espèces. La spécificité de ces contrats et l’hétérogénéité des règles qui les gouvernent n’est pas un obstacle à leur systématisation : le contrat portant sur le corps humain est un accord de volontés par lequel l’une des parties met son corps à disposition de l’autre pour l’exécution de la prestation convenue entre elles. En vertu de ce contrat, le cocontractant exerce un pouvoir matériel sur le corps mis à sa disposition. La prestation peut se réaliser sur ou par le corps mis à disposition. Un régime commun a pu être mis à jour. En effet, le législateur prévoit des obligations d’information pour éclairer le consentement de la partie faible, des droits potestatifs extinctifs lui sont également attribués afin que son consentement soit toujours révocable et un encadrement de la sécurité corporelle est nécessairement assuré. Cette étude a conduit à l’élaboration d’une classification des espèces contractuelles, ce qui permet de bénéficier d’une vision d’ensemble de ces contrats et de comprendre que chacun d’entre eux doit s’apprécier suivant l’acte envisagé et le corps mis à disposition. Dès lors, des règles spécifiques s’appliquent, lesquelles sont entièrement dédiées à la protection du corps et, partant, de la dignité humaine. / The human body has not escaped the movement of protean contractualization that is becoming more widespread. In this sense, our thesis made it possible to demonstrate the existence of a new legal category: that of the contract relating to the human body. It is a contractual genus that houses many species. The specificity of these contracts and the heterogeneity of the rules governing them is not an obstacle to their systematization: the contract relating to the human body is an agreement of will by which one of the parties makes his body available to the other for the performance of the service agreed between them. Under this contract, the contracting partner exercises material power over the body placed at his disposal. The service can be performed on or through the body provided. A common regime has been updated. Indeed, the legislator lays down information obligations to enlighten the consent of the weaker party, extinctive potential rights are also granted to him so that his consent can always be revoked and a framework for bodily safety is necessarily ensured. This study led to the elaboration of a classification of contractual species, which allows us to benefit from an overview of these contracts and to understand that each of them must be assessed according to the act envisaged and the body made available. As a result, specific rules apply, which are entirely dedicated to the protection of the body and, therefore, of human dignity.

Pendant longtemps, la qualification lege fori a dominé la scène internationale. D'une conception stricte, témoin d'une analyse particulariste du droit international privé, elle a progressivement évolué vers une conception assouplie. Aujourd'hui, les auteurs s'accordent à voir dans la qualification lege fori, une méthode de qualification appropriée. Confrontée au droit des obligations, la qualification lege fori révèle ses faiblesses. Elle est atteinte d'un vice originel qui implique de s'interroger sur son bien-fondé. Même assouplie, la qualification lege fori est incapable de se détacher des concepts du for. Une situation internationale sera donc résolue selon des concepts dictés pour les besoins du droit interne. Ces insuffisances s'observent à l'étude de cas hybrides. Il s'agit d'hypothèses particulièrement délicates à qualifier car elles se situent à la lisière de la matière contractuelle et de la matière délictuelle. La présente étude se propose de rechercher un modèle de qualification qui puisse répondre à la fonction internationale de la règle à appliquer. À côté de la qualification lege fori, il existe une appréhension européenne de la qualification. Celle-ci s'organise autour de l'élaboration de qualifications autonomes, a priori distinctes de la qualification lege fori. La Cour de justice a ainsi opté pour une qualification autonome des notions de matière contractuelle et de matière délictuelle. Confrontée à la qualification lege fori, la qualification autonome révèle sa véritable nature. Sous certains aspects, elle est une forme de qualification lege fori. Sous un autre angle, elle s'en éloigne et peut être analysée comme une véritable qualification internationale. Contrairement à la qualification lege fori, la qualification autonome répond à la fonction internationale de la règle de droit international privé. Elle est donc adaptée aux besoins de la vie internationale. Une fois le bien-fondé de l'approche autonome posée, il était nécessaire de s'interroger sur sa généralisation. En effet, l'adoption d'un ensemble complet de textes en droit international privé européen des obligations a fait émerger un débat sur l'opportunité d'adopter une qualification unitaire des notions communes aux textes de Bruxelles et de Rome. La présente étude se propose de retenir un modèle autonome et moniste de la qualification borné aux seules relations internationales. / For a long time, the lege fori characterisation has dominated the international scene. It has evolved from a strict conception, witness of a particularistic approach of private international law, towards a more flexible conception. Nowadays, authors accept the lege fori characterisation as an appropriate characterisation method. Faced with the law of obligations, the lege fori characterisation shows its weaknesses. It is suffering from an original defect which prompts interrogations on its merits. Even relaxed, the lege fori characterisation cannot be detached from the concepts of the lex fori. An international situation will therefore be resolved according to concepts dictated based on the needs of the law of the forum. Such inadequacies can be observed when studying hybrid cases. Hybrid cases hypotheses are extremely difficult to classify as they stand on the border between matters relating to tort/delict and matters relating to contracts. The present study will search for a characterisation model able to fulfil the international function of the rule to apply. A European understanding of characterisation exists beside the lege fori characterisation. It revolves around the elaboration of autonomous characterisations, in principle distinct from the lege fori characterisation. The European Court of Justice chose an autonomous characterisation for the notions of matter relating to contract and matter relating to tort/delict. Faced with the lege fori characterisation, the autonomous characterisation reveals its true nature. In some respects, it is a type of lege fori characterisation. From another perspective, it diverges from it and can be interpreted as a true international characterisation. Unlike the lege fori characterisation, the autonomous characterisation fulfils the international function of the private international law rule. Therefore, it is suitable to the needs of international affairs. Once the merits of the autonomous approach have been established, it is necessary to consider whether it can be generalized or not. Indeed, the adoption of a complete set of rules in European private international law relating to contractual and non-contractual obligations highlights a debate on the opportunity to adopt a unitary characterisation for the common notions of the Rome and Brussels Conventions and Regulations. The present study suggests to consider an autonomous and monistic model for characterisation but only to the extent international relations are involved.

The law of contract in South African affords parties the freedom to enter into a contract and who they wish to enter with. The general requirements for a legally enforceable contract are consent, good faith, and the sanctity of contract. The contractual freedom of parties also offers them freedom to choose the terms of their contract. Part of these terms is the freedom to incorporate exemption clauses in contracts. An exemption clause is a waiver of liability or the apportionment of risk in the event of an occurrence materialising as defined in the contract. Exemption clauses have become the norm rather than the exception and parties must therefore expect a contract to contain an exemption clause, albeit unfair. Until recently, there was no legislation that declared exemption clauses as unfair. The Consumer Protection Act is South Africa's first legislative regulation on unfair contract terms and the waiver of liability. The Act does not address the contractual freedom of parties to incorporate exemption clauses and whether they will be unenforceable in the light of section 48. The Act cannot be implemented without considering the freedom of contract to rely on exemption clauses. A literature study will be undertaken in order to establish the influence of section 48 of the Consumer Protection Act on South African law of contract and exemption clauses. / LLM (Import and Export Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015