Contrairement aux autres biens meubles, les navires, les aéronefs et les objets spatiaux affectés à la navigation internationale sont rattachés à un Etat. Le lien de droit public établi entre ces engins et l’Etat est communément appelé « nationalité ». Mais ce terme n’exprime pas à leur propos une institution à tous égards identique à la nationalité des personnes. Le rattachement examiné ne repose en effet pas sur des éléments de fait (naissance, ascendance etc.), mais uniquement sur un acte administratif interne, l’immatriculation. L’étude de la pratique, notamment des conventions internationales et des législations nationales, montre clairement que – contrairement à ce qu’on soutient souvent – il n’y a pas lieu de subordonner ce rattachement à un lien effectif. Ce qui importe, compte tenu notamment du fait que ces engins évoluent dans des espaces soustraits à toute compétence territoriale, est d’identifier l’Etat qui est seul compétent à l’égard de l’« ensemble organisé » formé par le véhicule, les personnes et la cargaison à bord, et qui est responsable de ses activités. Le droit international interdit dès lors la double immatriculation, mais il laisse aux Etats le pouvoir discrétionnaire de déterminer les conditions d’attribution de leur « nationalité », sans subordonner l’opposabilité internationale de celle-ci à quelque autre exigence que ce soit. Le danger est toutefois que cela favorise un certain laxisme de l’Etat d’immatriculation, ce qui exposerait au risque que des dommages graves soient causés aux personnes impliquées dans les activités de ces engins et – surtout – aux tiers. Mais ce sont les obligations internationales imposées et les droits corrélatifs reconnus dans le chef de l’Etat d’immatriculation qui sont déterminants à cet égard et non quelque mystérieuse « effectivité » du rattachement. Autrement dit, s’il n’est pas nécessaire d’imposer à l’Etat d’immatriculation des conditions internationales limitant sa liberté dans l’attribution de sa « nationalité » aux engins, il est indispensable d’exiger que celui-ci respecte ses obligations, c’est-à-dire exerce effectivement son contrôle et sa juridiction. Cette constatation se vérifie quel que soit l’engin en cause. Le rattachement créé par l’immatriculation constitue donc une institution "sui generis", commune aux navires, aéronefs et objets spatiaux et dont le régime juridique est encadré par le droit international. / Unlike any other movable property, ships, aircraft and space objects that are engaged in international navigation are linked to a State. The legal connection established between these craft/vessels and the State is commonly referred to as “nationality”. However, in this case the term does not represent an institution identical in all respects to the nationality of persons. With regard to vessels, the legal connection to a State is not based on factual elements (such as birth, descent etc.), but merely on the internal administrative act of registration. The study of State practice, notably international conventions and national laws, clearly shows that – contrary to what is often argued – there is no need to make this connection dependent on a pre-existing effective link. What matters most, given that these craft navigate in international space beyond the territorial jurisdiction of sovereign States, is to identify the State that holds sole jurisdiction over said “organized entity” consisting of the vehicle, the persons and the cargo on board and that is responsible for its activities. Public international law therefore prohibits dual registration, but leaves States free to determine the conditions under which they will confer their “nationality”, without imposing any other requirement for the opposability of this legal bond to third States. The danger is that this situation encourages laxity on the part of the States of registry and therefore creates the potential for serious damage incurred by persons involved in these vessels’ activities and – mostly – by third persons. In this regard, it is the international obligations and corresponding rights of the States of registry which are critical, and not a mysterious “effectiveness” of the legal bond. In other words, it is not necessary to impose on the State of registry any international conditions which would limit its freedom with regard to the conferral of its “nationality” upon vessels. It is however indispensable to require that said State complies with its obligations, meaning that it has to effectively exercise its jurisdiction and control over those craft. This statement holds true regardless of the craft concerned. The legal bond created by the registration therefore constitutes a "sui generis" institution, common to ships, aircraft and space objects, and whose legal regime is governed by international law.

Nous sommes aujourd'hui face à un incontestable déclin du critère de la nationalité en droit international privé. À l'heure de la mobilité croissante des personnes et de l'essor des autres critères de rattachement, il nous faut faire le constat de la marginalisation de la nationalité, pourtant considérée pendant longtemps comme la principale notion en matière de statut personnel, une marginalisation confirmée par les règlements européens et la jurisprudence. Face aux changements dans ce domaine et aux incertitudes qui y sont liées, il est nécessaire d'analyser ces données afin de pouvoir procéder à un bilan et d'énoncer des résolutions pour l'avenir. En effet, l'évolution du droit international privé a conduit à privilégier de nouveaux critères de rattachement, considérés comme plus efficaces et moins discriminatoires que la nationalité, qui sont ainsi plébiscités par le législateur et les juges européens. Il s'agit tout d'abord des critères territorialistes, et particulièrement de la résidence habituelle qui est devenue le rattachement principal, pour la plupart des textes européens, en matière de divorce, de responsabilité parentale ou encore de régime des incapables. L'importance donnée aux individus, reconnus en tant que quasi-sujets de droit international, résultant de l'intervention des droits de l'homme, apparaît comme le principal facteur du déclin de la nationalité. Le principe de non-discrimination et la prise en compte de la volonté des parties, jusqu'à leur désunion et leurs successions, illustrent cet état de fait. Il s'agit alors de savoir, à la lumière des réflexions sur ces nouveaux paradigmes, s'il est encore possible de reconsidérer le rattachement des personnes en revalorisant le critère de la nationalité dans certains domaines, comme cela a été suggéré dernièrement en droit des successions. Nous proposons ainsi une méthodologie permettant aussi bien dans le conflit de lois que dans le conflit de juridictions de déterminer les raisons du déclin de la nationalité. Nous menons également une réflexion sur son irrévocabilité en droit international privé. / The decline of the nationality in private international law is nowadays an undeniable reality. The impact of an almost unconditional mobility of European citizens and the emergence of other connecting factors in the personal law result in the weakening of the nationality link, despite its historical role in determining the law applied to an individual. The weakening is confirmed by the modern European legislation and case law. This study seems essential to understand the foundations of nationality as the connecting factor and takes into account the important changes of the nationality and its uncertainty. Indeed, the evolution of the European private international law led to the switch of the connecting factor from nationality toward territorial nexuses. Particular significance is put on the nexus of habitual residence, which is considered to be more efficient and less discriminatory, and is retained by the main European regulations and judgments, not only in case of international divorces or parental authority, but also according to such matters as legal capacity. Furthermore, the superiority of human rights appears to be the essential reason for the acknowledgement of individuals as the quasi-subjects of international law, which resulted in the decline of nationality as a connecting factor. Consequently, the principles of non-discrimination and personal autonomy impact the further fields of personal law, e.g. disunion and heritage. In the light of these new paradigms, it should be questioned if it is possible to overcome the decadence of the nationality and authorize its part in some matters of the European private international law, as it was regulated in the new heritage European regulation. For these reasons, this study propose a methodology that determines the reasons of the fall of nationality as the nexus of the private international law, both in the conflict of laws and in the conflict of jurisdictions, and provides some reflections on its irreversibility.

En appréhendant les éléments du droit international privé, en sa notion la plus large, pour les appliquer aux situations associées à l’activité sportive en général et au droit du sport en particulier, cette étude se propose de forger les piliers d’un droit international privé du sport. En effet, seront abordées premièrement des thématiques ayant trait à la nationalité, étatique comme sportive, des athlètes composant le le mouvement sportif. Dans un deuxième temps, ce travail se penchera sur l’identification et la détermination tant des autorités compétentes pour les situations juridico-sportives de dimension internationale, que sur le droit applicable à ces dernières. / Through the examination of the elements of the private international law and their contrast to situations associated with sports practice in general, and to Sports Law in particular, this thesis intends to establish the pillars of the private international law on sport. In this regard, the topics related to the nationality of the athletes, either granted by the State Law or Sports Law, are initially addressed. Subsequently, this thesis aims to identify and to determine the competent authorities and the applicable law to rule over international legal issues related to sport. / A partir do exame dos elementos do direito internacional privado e da contraposição dos mesmos a situações associadas à prática esportiva, de modo geral, e ao direito desportivo, em particular, este estudo pretende erigir os pilares do direito internacional privado do esporte. Com efeito, são abordadas, em um primeiro momento, temáticas relacionadas à nacionalidade, estatal e esportiva, dos atletas que integram o movimento esportivo. Na sequência, o objeto da tese repousa sobre a identificação e a determinação tanto das autoridades competentes para a apreciação das situações jurídico-desportivas de dimensão internacional, quanto do direito aplicável a estas últimas.

This thesis examines the structural and conjunuctural constraints that inhibit the emergence of a civil society and democracy in Ethiopia, 1991-2005. Freedom and democracy are taken as precondition for development and social transformation. It introduces a model of how state and society relationship affects development and social transformation in transitional societies placing freedom as a pivotal link. The thesis establishes a marked continuum in the modalities of state and society relationship throughout the three post-War governments in Ethiopia. It examines the current state/society relationship and highlights lack of freedom as the major constraint. This is examined against the backdrop of what the historical realm for social change in post-War Ethiopia is, namely freedom and democracy. It examines the policies of the current government (EPRDF) on non-state organizations, the 'theoretical' rationales it advanced and how the perceptions that the ruling party held back in 1975 haven't changed. It holds that the government exacerbated the problem of the fragile relationship it had with society. The thesis also examines the government's policy on ethnicity as the 'rationale' that governs the functions of its institutions of governance and deconstructs the concepts of EPRRDF's "revolutionary democracy", the dichotomy between quality and quantity as well as between cadres and experts. It also deconstructs the EPRDF's thesis on the "national question" both in terms of its claims to have proceeded from the positions of the old student movement on the one hand and from the Marxian theoretical perception on the "national question" on the other. The analysis is extended to examine, within the poverty-unfreedom nexus, the development challenges that Ethiopia currently faces. Four major development challenges are advanced for examination: gender, environment, rural development and population. The thesis concludes that the EPRDF has failed to resolve these structural problems. EPRDF's exclusion of the nascent civil society, suppression of freedom and official political opposition are taken as the main factors behind the failure. The case of the 2005 elections is presented as a sequel to the thesis. / Sociology / D.Litt. et Phil. (Sociology)

我國憲法學者多數認為外國人雖為基本權主體，但依照權利性質說，並不享有國際遷徙自由，從而國家可任意地拒絕其入境、居留或驅逐出境。最主要的理由在於，依照國際法，主權可自由決定是否允許外國人入境及課予入境條件。從而，主權也可自由設計入出境管理制度，那麼藉此箝制外國人言論、宗教或學術自由等基本權利，並非不可想像，甚至我國亦有實例發生。雖然，憲法學者也指出國家應儘量尊重外國人的入出境，亦不得任意藉此任意侵害其他基本權利。不過，既然外國人沒有作為憲法權利的國際遷徙自由，即難以對抗立法者藉由入管制度造成的侵害，更抹滅全球化時代下外國人國際遷徙活動本身具有的各種意義與功能。 有鑑於此，本文一方面嘗試跨足國際法，檢視現行國際人權法對外國人國際遷徙的保障程度，並回溯國際法古典著作探尋主權與國際遷徙自由的軌跡；另一方面，分析現行憲法學說之不足，藉由與國際法的對話成果，嘗試重新構築憲法保障外國人國際遷徙自由的體系。之後探討國家於限制外國人的國際遷徙自由時，應如何遵循法律保留原則、比例原則與正當法律程序，並提供救濟管道，始合乎憲法第23條之意旨。經由憲法基本權保障機制的確立，最後進一步檢討現行入出國及移民法，提出建言。 / The study is intended for elaborating on the freedom of international movement for aliens. First of all, the author examines the protected area of international movement for aliens under current international law and explores the classics of international law in order to research into the entangling relationship between sovereignty and freedom of international movement. In addition, the author analyzes constitutional doctrines at the present times and their inadequacy by applying international law. Meanwhile, what this article does attempt to do is to provide a new framework of the protected area of freedom of international movement for aliens under constitutional law. Also, in an effort to protect the freedom of international movement for aliens, the author discusses how to apply principles of non-delegation and proportionality and due process of law appropriately to prevent state power from violating it. Finally, the author examines immigration law and offers suggestions.

Mit dem Begriff der Intersektionalität wird die Verschränkung verschiedener Ungleichheit generierender Strukturkategorien, wie Geschlecht, Ethnizität, Klasse, Nationalität, Sexualität, Alter etc. erfasst. Er soll aufzeigen, dass keine dieser Kategorien alleine steht, sondern sowohl für sich als auch im Zusammenspiel mit den anderen einen die gesellschaftlichen Machtverhältnisse mitkonstituierenden Effekt hat. Die historischen Wurzeln liegen im 19. Jahrhundert und gehen auf die Erfahrungen Schwarzer Frauen und Lesben zurück, die sich im Feminismus westlicher weißer Mittelschichtsfrauen nicht wiederfanden. Leslie McCall unterscheidet drei methodologische Zugänge: den anti-kategorialen Ansatz, den intra-kategorialen Ansatz und den inter-kategorialen Ansatz.

The thesis Jews in Czechoslovakia after WWII deals with the situation of the Czech and Moravian Jews after the WWII. It looks into the problems of the Jews liberated in the concentration camps and their process of repatriation and the problems, which were connected with their's adaptation to the society in Czechoslovakia. It follows the work of the Czech repatriation authorities and foreign Jewish organizations, which helped the Jews to adapt into the Czechoslovakia society. The thesis puts emphasizes on the differences between the behavior of the Jewish community in Prague and the Czech bureaus, which were obvious in the period of the return of the Jews to Czechoslovakia after the WWII. It also deals with the situation of the Jews from Carpathian Ruthenia and the Jews with German nationality, whose conditions where much more difficult.

This thesis deals with one of the modern topics of international law - diplomatic protection. It provides for its comprehensive assessment from a wider and deeper perspective on the background of the codification process, which culminated in 2006, when the International Law Commission (ILC) adopted 19 Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection. In the current state of international law, diplomatic protection is based on customary international law. It is an instrument to protect nationals (be it a natural or legal person) by their state of nationality, if they injured by another (host) state in violation of international law. Under the current definition, diplomatic protection means the invocation (through peaceful means) by a state of the responsibility of another state for an injury caused to a national by an internationally wrongful act of that another state. The aim of diplomatic protection is to implement this responsibility. The application and exercise of diplomatic protection is considered to be a sovereign, discretional right of the state, although the thesis points out the some recent developments in international law towards the need to recognize the rights and interests of the individual, as well as the constitutional practice of some states guaranteeing its citizens a (domestic) right to...

This diploma thesis deals with the topic of diplomatic protection and it's use in the system of international law. The goal of this thesis is to describe the legal institute of diplomatic protection and how it is exercised and to describe both the historical development of the institute and it's future direction. The thesis is divided into five chapters that gradually develop and analyse the topic. The first chapter deals with the definition of the legal term diplomatic protection and it's content. It also lists the conditions under which the diplomatic protection can be exercised. Part of the chapter deals with the history of the institute and also speaks about some legal institutes similar to diplomatic protection. The second chapter summarises the efforts taken in order to codify the institute and introduces Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection to the reader. This chapter also describes the current situation of usage of the institute. The third chapter is focused on exercising diplomatic protection on behalf of individual citizens. It's main focus is to list all the necessary conditions under which can diplomatic protection be used in those cases. The fourth chapter on the other hand deals with providing diplomatic protection to legal entities and the conditions of such provision. There is a...

Les situations familiales européennes correspondent aujourd’hui à une réalité incontestable qui se traduit, juridiquement, par l’émergence d’un véritable droit international privé européen de la famille, entendu comme l’ensemble des règles de conflit de juridictions et de conflit de lois prévues par l’Union européenne pour s’appliquer aux relations familiales européennes. Face à la nouveauté de la matière et les incertitudes de ses concepts constitutifs, il est nécessaire de procéder à l’analyse des fondements du droit international privé européen de la famille, afin de mieux comprendre la matière et d’être capable de la faire progresser. L’étude de ces fondements révèle la nécessité de l’élaboration d’un droit international privé européen de la famille qui mobilise toutes les méthodes du droit international privé, en les articulant efficacement autour du rôle central de la règle de conflit de lois, véritable pierre angulaire du système Le droit de l’Union est actuellement loin d’un tel système d’ensemble. Il serait pourtant possible de surmonter la situation d’échec du droit de l’Union européenne par un droit international privé européen de la famille qui organise efficacement la pluralité des droits de la famille nationaux, tout en assurant l’effectivité des devoirs familiaux. Pour cela, le droit international privé européen doit intégrer la nécessité du respect des ordres juridiques nationaux et efficacement la mettre en oeuvre par un système de droit international privé articulé autour d’une règle de conflit de lois conçue de façon à tenir compte de l’irréductible dimension nationale du droit de la famille. L’Union européenne, tout en proposant un droit international privé respectueux du concept de pluriel universel, pourrait ainsi (re-)découvrir l’identité pluraliste de l’unité dans la diversité. Et elle pourrait par-là faire émerger progressivement l’identité d’un véritable citoyen européen, qui s’épanouit et s’identifie dans la diversité des droits nationaux et dans la coordination harmonieuse de cette diversité, de façon, non seulement, à ce que chaque droit de la famille national soit le résultat d’un processus démocratique auquel les citoyens directement intéressés participent activement, mais aussi et surtout de façon à ce que chaque Etat membre puisse continuer à défendre ses valeurs nationales essentielles dans le contexte du fédéralisme européen. / European families are nowadays an undeniable reality. This reality is taken into account through the emergence of a genuine European private international family law, understood as the set of rules of conflict of jurisdictions and conflict of laws provided by the European Union to apply to European family relationships. Given the novelty of the subject and the uncertainty of its constituent concepts, it is necessary to analyse the foundations of European private international family law, in order to be able to better understand it and to enhance its operation. The study ofthese foundations reveals the need to develop a European private international family law thatmobilizes all methods of private international law, effectively articulating them around the centralrole of the rule of conflict of laws, the real cornerstone of the system. The European Union is currently far from realising such a comprehensive and coherent system. Nonetheless it would be possible to overcome the failure of the current situation through the development of a European private international family law that effectively organises the plurality of national family rights,while ensuring the effectiveness of family duties. The European private international law should therefore incorporate the need to respect the national legal systems and effectively implement this respect through the elaboration of a system of private international law that is conceived around a rule of conflict of laws designed to take account of the inevitable national dimension of family law. The European Union, while offering a private international law respectful of the concept of a “plurieluniversel”, could hence (re-)discover the identity of the pluralistic unity in diversity. Thus, it could gradually let emerge the identity of a genuine European citizen, identifying herself and himself withthe diversity of national laws and the harmonious coordination of this diversity, not only in order to protect the fact that each national family law is the result of a democratic process in which citizens directly concerned can actively participate, but especially in order to guarantee that each Member State can continue to defend its national core values in the context of European federalism.