Plurale Weltinterpretationen praktizieren wir täglich, meist ohne uns darüber bewusst zu sein. Zustande kommen sie durch die gleichzeitige und gleichwertige Existenz verschiedener Modelle der Weltinterpretation. Sie sind Produkte menschlicher Schöpferkraft und stehen als parallele Realitäten einander ergänzend und einander widersprechend nebeneinander. Das Buch führt am Beispiel der Tyva Südsibiriens in zwei Modelle der Weltinterpretation und in die Praxis des Umgangs mit ihnen ein. Es zeigt, wie einzelne lokale Akteure zwei von mehreren Modellen flexibel zum Einsatz bringen, um Situationen zu deuten und in ihnen zu handeln. Es wird deutlich, welchen Regeln die Tyva dabei folgen, welche Gründe sie leiten und welche Folgen sie zu tragen haben. Das Ergebnis ist ein Bild zeitgenössischer Kultur, das der gegenwärtig gegebenen Flexibilität und Pluralität des menschlichen Deutens, Handelns und Verhaltens gerecht wird. / Plural World Interpretations are part of our everyday lives, even if we are not aware of the fact. They result from the simultaneous existence of different but equal models for interpreting the world we live in. These models are the product of human constructivity and co-exist as parallel realities, complementing and contradicting each other. Based on fieldwork among the Tyva of southern Siberia, the book discusses the practice of dealing with this multiplicity of world interpretations and shows how individual actors oscillate flexibly between two of many possible models for interpreting specific situations and act on them. The rules Tyvans apply in varying contexts, the reasons behind their choices and the consequences they have to deal with, are analysed. The result is an account of contemporary culture that explores the flexibility and plurality of human interpretation, action and behaviour. / Мы используем множественные интерпретации мира (нем. plurale Weltinterpretationen) ежедневно и, в большинстве случаев, неосознанно. Осуществляется это за счёт одновременного и равноценного сосуществования различных моделей мировоззрения. Они являются продуктом творческой деятельностей человека и сосуществуют в качестве параллельных реальностей, дополняя и, одновременно, противореча друг другу. На примере тувинцев Южной Сибири данная книга знакомит с двумя моделями мировоззрения, а также с практикой их применения. Показывается, как локальные акторы гибко применяют две из существующего множества моделей: и для того, чтобы действовать в складывающихся ситуациях, и чтобы толковать их. Станет понятным, каким правилам при этом следуют тувинцы, какими мотивами руководствуются и какие это имеет последствия. Результатом явится картина современной культуры, которая будет отвечать имеющимся на данный момент запросам гибкости и многообразия в мировоззрении, действиях и поведении человека.

俄羅斯作為一個多民族的聯邦國家，自一九九一年獨立以後採行市場改革與民主制度，轉型後面臨國家、民族與民主化的多重挑戰。民主轉型是一條冗長而複雜的道路，而且通常不是一條坦途。俄羅斯也不可避免要面對這樣的挑戰。俄羅斯的聯邦制度承繼了前蘇聯的遺緒，前蘇聯的民族區域自治政策相當程度的影響了俄羅斯的聯邦制度。聯邦制度被許多人視為是一種能容納民族多元文化的制度化機制，但是採行聯邦制的俄羅斯一開始就面對蜂擁而至的民族分離勢力，統一成為議題而非共識，聯邦制度與民族自治的關係與發展成為攸關俄羅斯未來的一項重要問題，本文就選擇俄羅斯的聯邦制與民族自治作為論文主題，而以一九九○年作為分析的中心。 本文研究架構從新制度主義的研究途徑來探討後共時期的俄羅斯，我們在文中有三項主要的分析架構。首先，我們選擇由轉型學中的一項相當顯著的概念－「協議轉型」，來省視它的民主化過程。我們使用政治學家卡爾對協議的探討，他分析協議內涵包括基礎性與管理性，對於協議有進一步的瞭解。同時，他使用策略與主導力量的變數作出了民主轉型的類型表，本文作者則修正其類型表增加兩項變數，從使用策略與主導力量的角度來分析俄羅斯轉型過程中，涉及聯邦制度與地區自治的幾項協議，包括《聯盟條約》、《聯邦條約》、《俄羅斯聯邦憲法》、《俄韃條約》、《公民協定》與《權力分享協定》作為分析對象；此外，也將俄羅斯轉型初期地區力量最為凸顯的韃靼斯坦與車臣兩個民族共和國，以及本文所分析的三個個案－喀爾瑪克、布里亞特與圖瓦，也一併置於類型表中作分析。這些協議除了《公民協定》以外，其餘協議對於俄羅斯聯邦制度的發展以及俄羅斯聯邦與地區的關係都有影響。我們在此發現，除了《俄羅斯聯邦憲法》是屬於「菁英與群眾合作」的「強制接受」的類型外，其餘都是「協商妥協」中的「菁英優勢」類型。雖然絕大多數的協議都是以協商妥協的方式通過，但是因為國家根本大法憲法以強制方式通過，也是造成俄羅斯後來政局不穩定的最主要因素之一。其次，我們從多位政治學者對聯邦制度的理論探討，包括不對稱聯邦制度的分析，來探討俄羅斯聯邦制度的安排，由俄羅斯聯邦憲法對於中央與地區的權力劃分來詳細分析俄羅斯聯邦制度的特徵。從學者分析不對稱聯邦制度模式會有衝突的潛在性，對聯邦制度的發展不具正面的功能，甚至可能會危及聯邦的統一，對俄羅斯聯邦制度的不穩定可以提供部分的解釋功能。最後，我們從策略運用的角度來分析俄羅斯聯邦與地區的關係，將俄羅斯由獨立初期至一九九○年代末期，聯邦政府與地區（特別是民族共和國）所運用的策略，由策略型式、時間演進與光譜分布，來研究一九九○年代俄羅斯聯邦政府與地區的關係發展梗概。從一九九○年代初期的「主權的遊行」到一九九四年以後的「雙邊條約的遊行」的現象發展中，可以發現從時間演進與光譜分布來看，俄羅斯聯邦政府是節節敗退，先懷柔與施惠，最後才祭出武力作為施壓。而自一九九四年的第一次車臣戰爭以後，地區分離力量已有所收斂，地區轉而爭取經濟與自治權益居多，直至普丁總統上任以後，才著手積極整頓聯邦政府與地區的幾項爭議問題。 本文使用新制度主義研究途徑探討俄羅斯聯邦與民族自治，以一九九○年代為分析中心，並以喀爾瑪克、布里亞特與圖瓦三個共和國作為個案探討對象。文中以俄羅斯獨立至葉爾辛下台作為主要的研究分析期，詳實分析俄羅斯聯邦發展過程中如何處理民族問題，以期對多民族國家處理民族問題的做法有更深一層的瞭解。全文分為六章。第一章緒論。敘述研究動機、所使用的研究途徑、研究架構與章節分配。第二章探討民族主義與俄羅斯，敘述俄羅斯與民族主義的關係，對俄羅斯民族主義的特徵、蘇聯的民族理論與政策與蘇聯解體的民族因素，先作背景因素的探討。第三章分析俄羅斯的民主化與聯邦制。對俄羅斯獨立初期的民主轉型，特別是以協議轉型作為分析重心。分析俄羅斯獨立以後的多項協議的內涵與重要性，再從聯邦制的理論來分析俄羅斯所採取的聯邦制內涵與特徵。第四章分析俄羅斯聯邦中央與地區的關係。以俄羅斯的民族政策、俄羅斯聯邦中央與地區的關係，以及地區精英作為觀察中心。第五章選擇喀爾瑪克、布里亞特與圖瓦三個民族共和國作為研究個案，這三個共和國是蒙古族後裔或與蒙古族族源接近的民族所聚居的共和國，文中比較分析三個共和國在俄羅斯獨立以後的策略以及與中央的互動。第六章結論。先評估俄羅斯的民主化與聯邦制度的優缺點，再從普丁總統上任以後對俄羅斯聯邦制度的改革、俄羅斯作為多民族聯邦國家與民主鞏固的關係作前景的探討。 本文認為俄羅斯聯邦制度承繼了前蘇聯的制度遺緒，再披上現代民主的形式，使得俄羅斯的聯邦制難以調適民主化以後的變革。一九九○年代聯邦政府處理地區－特別是民族共和國－的分離勢力捉襟見肘。聯邦政府對分離力量收斂以後所代之而起的地區爭權趨勢，也始終未能理順，導致普丁總統上任以後對地區勢力不斷採取抑制方式。本文認為俄羅斯聯邦制度需作結構性的調整，以適應未來的改革，否則地區力量會隨著中央的衰頹東山再起，對俄羅斯長遠的發展並不利。 / As a multi-ethnic federation nation, Russia, since its independence in 1991, initiated market reform and embarked on establishing a democratic system. In the process of this transformation, it had to confront many challenges related to ethnicity and democratization. Democratization is a long and complex process and, more than often, not an easy road. Russia too, hence, was not exempted from facing such challenges. The federalism of Russia has inherited some remnants of its legacy from former Soviet Union. Former Soviet Union’s policy of regional autonomy based on ethnicity has had substantial degree of influence on Russia’s federalism. The federalism is regarded by many people as a systematic mechanism which is able to accommodate a multi-ethnic culture. However, Russia, at the very onset of adopting this system, had to confront many forces which supported ethnic separation. Unification became a mere agenda not mutual consensus. The relationship between federalism and ethnic autonomy and development became an important issue for the future of Russia. This paper hereby chooses the federalism of Russia and ethnic autonomy as the topic of the thesis, and selects the 1990s as the focal point of this analytical study. The analytical framework of this paper exploits the approach of new-institutionalism to examine a post-Communist Russia. Our paper comprises of three key frameworks for analysis. First, we will pick one of the relatively distinct concepts of democratic transition-“Pacted Transitions” to analyze Russia’s democratization process. Let’s take the reference of political expert Terry Lynn Karl’s study on compromise. His analysis on pacts includes both basics and managerial, thus offering a much better understanding on pacts. At the same time, he employs strategy and leadership as variables to create modes of transition to democracy. The writer of this paper amends this chart to include two additional variables. From the aspect of strategy and leadership, we can analyze some of the compromises undertaken by the federalism and regional autonomies including the “Union Treaty,” the Federation Treaty, the Constitution of Russian Federation, “On Delimitation of Jurisdictional Subjects and Mutual Delegation of Authority between the State Bodies of the Russian Federation and the Russian Federation and the State Bodies of the Republic of Tatarstan,” the Civic Accord, the power-sharing agreements between Russian federal government and its subjects, etc, which Russia encountered during its transition process. In addition to these, this paper will also accommodate in its analysis chart the ethnic republics of Tatarstan and Chechnya - two most prominent regional forces during the initial period of Russia’s transition, plus three study cases on Kalmykiya, Buryat and Tuva. All the above mentioned treaties and agreements, with the exception of the Civic Accord, had significant influence on the development of Russia’s federalism and the interrelationship between the Federation and the territories. Here we’ll discover that, except for the “Constitution of Russian Federation” which can be classified as “Imposition” in the mode of ”Cooperation between the elite and the mass”, the rest belong to the mode of “Compromise” in “Elite Ascendant”. Even though most of the agreements were conceived by way of compromises, but since the national constitution was passed and approved in a coercive manner, this has remained as one of the predominant reason for the subsequent instability of the Russian Federation. Secondly, while referring to the theories proposed by various political experts on the federalism, including studies on asymmetrical federalism, we can examine the arrangement of the Russian Federalism and analyze its characteristics from its constitution’s perspective on division of powers and jurisdictions between the center and the territories. From the analyses of these experts, wherein they infer that this type of asymmetrical federalism holds potential for generating conflicts and does not have any positive influence towards the development of the federalism, even to the extent of possible undermining of the federation’s unification, we can provide some explanation for the instability of the Russian Federation. Finally, let us inspect the development of relationship between the Russian Federation and the regions from the perspective of utilization of strategies - the strategies which were employed by the Federal government and the territories (especially the ethnic republics) from the time of Russia’s initial phase of independence till the late nineteen nineties, and through the type of strategies, time progression and the distribution of spectrum, understand the synopsis of this relationship. From the development of events since the “Parade of Sovereignties” in the early nineties till the “Parade of Bilateral Treaties,” after 1994, by referring to time progression and the distribution of spectrum we can understand that the government of the Russian Federation has been deteriorating progressively –at first posing benign and offering incentives, and then eventually resorting to oppression by military might. Since it’s first conflict with Chechnya in 1994, the secessionist forces in the regions have relatively quailed, with the majority of the territories rather claiming for economic rights and autonomy. It was only after the appointment of President Vladimir Putin that these problems between the federal government and the territories were intensively looked into and dealt with. This paper utilizes the approach of new-institutionalism to analyze the Russian Federation and the ethnic autonomies. We choose the nineteen nineties period as the focus of this research and select Kalmykiya, Buryat and Tuva as the subjects for case studies. This paper allots the time beginning from the independence of Russia till the departure of President Boris Yeltsin as the primary time period for analysis, with in-depth look on ways to resolve ethnic conflicts while studying the process of development of the Russian Federation, with a hope to get a deeper understanding of how to resolve ethnic problems within a multi-ethnic nation. The whole paper is comprised of six chapters. The first chapter explains the motive of this study, the various approaches used for the study, the frameworks of this analysis and the distribution of the chapters. Taking the characteristics of nationalism in Russia, it’s ethnic groups and various related theories and policies instigating the disintegration of the former Soviet Union as the basis of study for its background aspects, the second chapter deals with nationalism and Russia, the interrelationship between the two. The third chapter probes into Russia’s democratization and its federalism. It analyzes Russia’s early stages of transition to democracy with special reference to “Pacted Transition” as the focal point. Here we study the contents and significance of the various treaties and agreements of Russia and thereafter from the theories of the federalism, we analyze the essence and features of the federalism adopted by Russia. The fourth chapter focuses on the relationship between the Russian federal government and the territories. Here we take Russia’s policies on ethnicity, the relationship between the federal government and the regions and the regional elites as the focus of our observation. The fifth chapter partakes the republics of Kalmykia, Buryat and Tuva as case studies for this research. These three republics are either descendants of the Mongol or have close association with Mongoloid ancestry. In this chapter we take a look at the policies adopted after Russia’s independence and their interaction with the center. The sixth chapter evaluates the pros and cons of Russia’s democratization and federalism. Thereafter, as the foreground of this paper, we study all the reforms in Russia, which are undertaken by the Russian Federation following the election of President Vladimir Putin, and the relationship between Russia, a multi-ethnic nation and its democratic consolidation. This paper assumes that Russia has inherited the vestiges of former Soviet Union and at the same time adorning itself with a style of a modern democracy, making it very difficult to adapt to changes following its democratization. In the nineteen nineties, the Russian federal government was quite unsuccessful in handling the secessionist forces in the regions, especially the ethnic republics. The federal government was unable to restrain the trend in regional power struggles, which became fervent after the secessionist forces tempered down. This eventually led to the use of prolonged methods of suppression by President Vladimir Putin. This paper assumes that the Russian Federation needs to make major structural changes in its system in order to adapt itself to future reforms, failing which, the regional forces will once again rise up as the center weakens, thus proving unfavorable for the development of Russia in the long-run.

自第21世紀初以來，由於電信與資訊科技的積極發展，使資訊取得更容易。於此同時，資訊來源的多樣性也使思想和觀點多元化。 國家形象是簡潔且通俗易懂的概念，它包含一國的國內經濟、政治發展程度、國際體系上的地位、合作行爲、文化和歷史價值。此外，國家形象也把國家利益反映到國際舞臺，允許領導人與外國夥伴鞏固關係、創造共贏局面。該背景下，國家形象塑造是每個政府的迫切目標之一，蓋因和平且可靠的國際形象可以保證國家永續發展。 最近幾年當中，俄羅斯的國際形象惡化。因此本論文的目標為研究自2012年至2016年中（現任總統普京的任職期間）的國際公眾對俄羅斯聯邦的態度。 作者研究俄羅斯形象塑造及公眾外交政策，分析俄羅斯聯邦與其他國家及國際組織的正式文件、國際學者文獻理的推論，也解析臺灣國立政治大學來自不同國家學生、畢業生、老師與教授的立場。作者根據上述資料推論出俄羅斯國際形象受損的原因及國家公眾外交有哪些需要改善的部分；並以強調形象改革政策計畫中，哪些交流能夠使俄羅斯聯邦與國際社會關係暖化來作為結論。 / Since the beginning of the 21st century, development of telecommunication and information technologies has resulted in the substantial expansion of media coverage, greater information accessibility, and sophistication of control over the information. Abundance of facts concerning any issue makes it multidimensional, provoking a plentitude of opinions. The image of a country is a succinct and ready-for-apprehension informational phenomena or entrenched perception of a country by foreign partners, which offers a particular expectation of its behavior, thus, it is one of the major factors influencing international cooperation. In addition, state image identifies a country’s political weight abroad and its status among other members of global community, including the capacity to defend national interests. The significance of the image-building is determined by the fact that it is one of the strategic tasks for each contemporary government. Trustworthy international image speaks for a country’s economic and cultural development and creates a formula of its success abroad and within national borders, serves as a criterion of its stability and transparency. Recently Russia has experienced a substantial shift in its apprehension by the foreign public. The particular study is focused on how global community perceived the Russian Federation from 2012 till 2016, the period that correlated with the latest tenet of President Vladimir Putin. The research is focused on the origins of Russia’s international image along with the evaluation of governmental attempts to enhance it and create transparency and mutual trust under existing conditions, including the course of the country’s public diplomacy. The author analyzed how the world academia and media portray the Russian Federation and collected opinions among students, alumni, and professors of the National Chengchi University. The paper aims to define the most distinctive factors, which form the image of the Russian Federation on the international arena and to elicit the fields of Russia’s public diplomacy, which lack attention the most, as well as to offer a roadmap for overcoming the existing misunderstanding.

The aim of this diploma thesis called The Human Rights Commissioner of the Russian Federation is to provide a comprehensive insight into the formation and development process of the institute of the human rights commissioner by means of description and analysis. At the same time, it attempts to facilitate a better understanding of this institute inside the Russian social system. The opening section defines the institute of ombudsman from the historical and theoretical point of view and puts it in the post-Soviet context. The following section touches on the key legislation related to this institute in the Russian Federation and on the way it was formed and embedded in Russia. A separate chapter addresses the competences and specific tasks of the public defender of rights. This chapter is supported by annual reports issued by the Russian ombudsman's office. The last section of the thesis deals with the relationship between the ombudsman, the Russian establishment and non-governmental human rights organizations. The relationship is defined theoretically and illustrated by practical examples and specific cases. Keywords Ombudsman, The Human Rights Commissioner, Federal Constitutional Act on the Human Rights Commissioner, Human Rights, Freedoms, the Russian Federation, Russian Establishment, Human...

Après la chute de l’Union des Républiques Socialistes Soviétiques en décembre 1991, la Fédération de Russie affirme à maintes reprises son engagement à suivre un développement démocratique et à faire partie de « l’Europe sans frontières ». Pour atteindre cet objectif, elle adhère à toute une série de traités européens, entre autres, à la Convention européenne de sauvegarde des droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales. Toutefois, malgré la volonté affichée par la Russie de faire partie du système européen de protection des droits fondamentaux, les problèmes de transition politique, institutionnelle et économique rendent cette tâche très difficile. Entre autres le fédéralisme, qu’on peut qualifier de « complexe », crée un système juridique très singulier dont certains éléments ne sont pas toujours compatibles avec les instruments internationaux en matière des droits de l’homme ratifiés par la Russie. L’objectif de ce travail est d’étudier les problèmes de la mise en œuvre de la Convention européenne de sauvegarde des droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales et des décisions de la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme en Fédération de Russie et leur possible influence sur le développement des instruments de protection des droits fondamentaux dans les conditions du système fédéral existant en Russie. / After the fall of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in December 1991, the Russian Federation stated repeatedly its commitment to democratic development and to be part of "Europe without borders". To achieve this goal it joins a number of European treaties, among others, the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. However, despite the willingness of Russia to be part of the European system of protection of fundamental rights, the problems of political transition, economic and institutional development make this task very difficult. Among other the federalism, which could be qualified as "complex", creates a very singular legal system. Some of its elements are not always compatible with international instruments on human rights protection ratified by Russia. The objective of this work is to study the problems of implementation of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and the decisions of the European Court of Human Rights in the Russian Federation and their possible influence on the development of national instruments for the protection of fundamental rights under the Russian federal system.

One of the key issues discussed over the last few years in connection with the ECHR is a large number of individual applications lodged to the court although the court does not have sufficient capacity to resolve them. The majority of the cases falls into category of so- called repetitive cases. This thesis aims to identify the tools, ECHR disposes of, and to what extent those tools may affect national legislation and case law of national courts. Reforms of problematic institutes at the national level implemented as a result of the ECHR decisions are able to exclude the future influx of repetitive cases to this transnational judicial authority. The process of the influence of ECHR case law on national legal systems is analyzed on the example of Russian Federation, which currently holds the first place regarding the number of individual applications that have been filed with the ECHR.

The aim of the thesis is to evaluate an investment project in the Russian Federation from the foreign investor's perspective. The project feasibility study was developed as the first step in a decision making process of execution an international investment project, which includes ambient conditions and market analysis. The plan of cash flow was compiled in compliance of Russian tax system, and was considered as a base for project evaluation by using appropriate methods. For further assessment of possible risks of the project was used sensitivity analysis.

Au cours de la première décennie du XXIe siècle l'Arctique a fait l’objet d’une attention croissante de la part des chercheurs, des politiciens et des multinationales. En effet, les problématiques liées au changement climatique, et le regain d’interêt politique et économique des Etats côtiers et non côtiers, a peu à peu fait apparaître cette région comme un endroit stratégique sur l'échiquier des grandes puissances. Depuis 2001, la Fédération de Russie a entrepris plusieurs actions afin de garantir ses intérêts nationaux dans ce qu'elle considère comme l’Arctique russe, un espace qui comprend environ 22600 kilomètres de littoral avec l'océan Arctique. Or, le changement climatique, les développements socio-économiques et les impératifs stratégiques ont conditionné cette politique pour l’Arctique. Les oblasts de Mourmansk et d’Arkhangelsk jouent, de nos jours, un rôle majeur dans la mise en œuvre de la stratégie russe pour la région arctique. Ce travail évaluera donc les défis majeurs de stratégie et de sécurité nationale russes en Arctique occidental au regard des récents changements du modèle politique et économique russe, du rôle émergent d'acteurs privés et étrangers ainsi que des spécificités des régions arctiques et sous-arctiques. Dans une première partie de notre travail nous essayerons de souligner l’importance stratégique et économique de l’Arctique Occidental pour la Fédération de Russie. Une approche historique nous permettra de mieux comprendre le rôle actuel des oblasts de Mourmansk et d’Arkhangelsk tandis que l’analyse de l’évolution démographique, industrielle et commerciale de ces régions nous fera apprécier son potentiel socio-économique. Enfin, une analyse de l’adaptation des industries énergétiques et du complexe militaro-industriel aux marchés internationaux sera entreprise ainsi qu’une évaluation des risques liés au changement climatique et à la pollution industrielle. Dans une deuxième partie, nous analyserons les principales problématiques rencontrés par les acteurs étatiques et privés en Arctique occidental. Afin d’identifier les principaux enjeux, nous avons transposé des théories des relations internationales à la géopolitique (Waltz, Keohane, Putnam). Tout particulièrement, nous utiliserons pour cette analyse les modèles conceptuels de Graham Allison et son approche sur les intérêts nationaux. / During the first decade of the XXIth century, the Arctic has received growing attention from scholars, policymakers and multinational corporations. Climate change as well as renewed political and economical interests from coastal and non-coastal States had repositioned this region as a prospective theater in the Great powers chessboard. Since 2001, the Russian Federation has taken several international and domestic actions to guarantee its national interest in what it considers as the Russian Arctic, a space that comprises about 22 600 kilometers of national coastline with the Arctic Ocean. But climate change, historical socio-economic developments and strategic imperatives have conditioned this engagement.The Murmansk and Arkhangelsk oblasts plays nowadays a leading role in the implementation of a cross-domain Russian strategy for the Arctic region. This dissertation will then assess the central challenges of Russian National Security and Strategy in the Occidental Arctic taking in consideration recent changes in the Russian Federation political and economical model, the emerging role of private and foreign actors and the specificity of Arctic and sub-Arctic regions.The first part of this dissertation will try to underline the past/current strategic and economical relevance of the Occidental Arctic for the Russian Federation. A historical approach will allow us to better understand the current role of Murmansk and Arkhangelsk oblasts while we will appreciate its socio-economic potential thanks to the analysis of demographic, industrial and commercial developments of these regions. Finally, a study on defense and energy industries adaptation to international markets will be conducted as well as a regional risk-assessment concerning climate change and industrial pollution.In a second part, our main objective is to demonstrate the strategic and economical importance of the Murmansk and Arkhangelsk oblasts for the Russian Arctic policy. This will lead us to analyse core issues in the Occidental Arctic for state and industry actors. The methodology applied to identify the main trends in these issues is a combination of the French school of geopolitics with relevant theories of international relations (Waltz, Keohane, Putnam). Graham Allison’s conceptual models and his approach on national interests will be applied in the analysis.

<p>У докторској дисертацији је&nbsp; на основу&nbsp; ранијих истраживања и&nbsp; званичних докумената&nbsp;Министарстава образовања&nbsp; изложена&nbsp; компаративна&nbsp; анализа&nbsp; обавезног образовања и Наставних&nbsp;програма биологије у Србији,&nbsp; Хрватској, Словенији, Аустрији, Финској&nbsp; и Руској&nbsp; Федерацији.&nbsp; Циљ&nbsp;истраживања&nbsp; је био да&nbsp; се сагледају&nbsp; њихове међусобне сличности и разлике&nbsp; и могућност да се&nbsp;<br />позитивна искуства у реформи образовања и програма биологије других земаља &nbsp;примене&nbsp; за&nbsp;унапређење образовног система и наставе биологије у Србији&nbsp; у наредном периоду.</p><p>Анализом је утврђено постојање значајних разлика у образовним системима анализираних&nbsp;земаља које се односе на: структуру, дужину трајања, дужину трајања појединих образовних&nbsp;циклуса, број ученика у одељењу, број наставних дана у години, дужину наставног часа, рад школа&nbsp;по сменама, заступљеност обавезних, изборних и факултативних предмета...&nbsp;</p><p>Анализом је утврђено постојање значајне разлике&nbsp; и&nbsp; у заступљености наставних &nbsp;предмета&nbsp;Природа и Биологија по разредима, недељном и годишњем фонду часова, васпитно-образовним&nbsp;циљевима, обиму садржаја по разредима, као и у структурним елементима програма.</p><p>Поређењем Наставних програма Природе и Биологије&nbsp; у&nbsp; анализираним земљама, њихове&nbsp;концепције и карактеристика, констатовано је:<br />&ndash;&nbsp; Да су програми растерећени од сувишних садржаја&nbsp; и да&nbsp; се&nbsp; ослањају на савремена&nbsp;научна достигнућа и перспективу биологије, као науке XXI века.<br />&ndash;&nbsp; Постоји&nbsp; корелација&nbsp; садржаја&nbsp; програма природних наука и њихова примереност&nbsp;интересовањима и потребама ученика&nbsp; као и поступност и систематичност у&nbsp;презентовању садржаја.<br />&ndash;&nbsp; Основни&nbsp; елементи&nbsp; садржаја&nbsp; су&nbsp; дефинисани&nbsp; у складу са узрастом ученика, што&nbsp;доприноси квалитетнијем и трајнијем усвајању знања и могућности његове примене у&nbsp;конкретним животним ситуацијама.<br />&ndash;&nbsp; Садржаји програма Природе и Биологије васпитавају ученике за хуман однос према&nbsp;природи и живим бићима, развијају њихову еколошку свест и одговоран однос према&nbsp;сопственом здрављу.<br />&ndash;&nbsp; У&nbsp; Словенији, Аустрији, Финској и Русији садржаји из биологије се у једном или више&nbsp;разреда обрађују интегрисано са садржајима Географије, Физике и Хемије, &nbsp;са&nbsp;нагласком на еколошки аспект и одрживи развој&nbsp; у његовој реализацији.<br />&ndash;&nbsp; Програми Природе и Биологије у Словенији, Аустрији и Финској подељени су у&nbsp;<br />тематске области, за које нису прцизирани типови ни број часова, тако да наставник&nbsp;распоређује годишњи фонд часова према карактеристикама наставних целина.&nbsp;<br />&ndash;&nbsp; Структурни елементи програма предмета Природа и Биологија су: васпитно-образовни&nbsp;циљеви, оперативни задаци по разредима, дидактичке препоруке, очекивана постигнућа&nbsp;ученичка по образовним циклусима, оцењивање и вредновање ученичких постигнућа.<br />&ndash;&nbsp; Стандардизацијом програмских захтева и садржаја, тежиште образовања је померено&nbsp; са&nbsp;наставних програма и наставника ка резултатима учења и ученицима, што&nbsp; је допринело&nbsp;квалитетнијој реализацији наставних садржаја,&nbsp; објективнијој провери ученичких&nbsp;постигнућа, трајнијим и квалитетнијим знањима &nbsp;ученика.<br />&ndash;&nbsp; У свим анализираним земљама напуштају се традиционални облици, методе&nbsp; и технике&nbsp;рада у настави, а примењују савремени дидактичко-методички&nbsp; приступи интерактивног&nbsp;учења/наставе: тимска, проблемска, програмирана и&nbsp; пројектна настава,&nbsp; непосредно и&nbsp;посредно посматрање&nbsp; природних појава, истраживања,&nbsp; излети и екскурзије. Овакав рад&nbsp;захтева многобројне ученичке активности које се огледају у: организацији и планирању&nbsp;активности на терену, формирање базе и збирки података, организовање и учествовање&nbsp;у дебатним и панел дискусијама, израду мини пројеката и слично.</p><p>У односу на Републику&nbsp; Србију, најновије реформе образовања у Хрватској, Словенији,&nbsp;Аустрији, Русији, а нарочито Финској одвијале су се брже и темељније. Реформи образовања у овим&nbsp;земљама је приступљено креативно,&nbsp; са&nbsp; оријентацијом&nbsp; на модерне узоре, а&nbsp; да&nbsp; при том&nbsp; ове земље&nbsp;нису изгубиле сопствену оригиналност&nbsp; у образовању. Циљеви реформе&nbsp; основног&nbsp; образовања у&nbsp;Србији,&nbsp; која је&nbsp; започела 2000.&nbsp; и завршена&nbsp; 2010.&nbsp; године,&nbsp; су били слични онима у Финској и другим&nbsp;анализираним земљама, али она није довела до суштинских промена у основношколском образовном систему.&nbsp; Постављени циљеви нису остварени,&nbsp; па исти задаци остају за неку следећу реформу.</p><p>Важећи&nbsp; Наставни програм биологије у&nbsp; Србији (иако је недавно реформисан)&nbsp; је&nbsp; и даље&nbsp;традиционалан, са линеарним рапоредом садржаја, писан је као листа тема са обимним садржајима у&nbsp;свим разредима,&nbsp; без&nbsp; могућности&nbsp; изборних садржаја.&nbsp; Непостојање корелација садржаја са другим&nbsp;предметима, али и у оквиру саме биологије по разредима, онемогућава интегрисање &nbsp;садржаја.</p><p>Оцене реформисаног Наставног програма биологије&nbsp; за основну школу у Србији на основу&nbsp;проведене анкете за наставнике&nbsp; биологије, крећу се од крајње позитивних, преко умерених до&nbsp;крајње негативних.</p><p>Због наведених и других разлога потребна је нова коренита промена основног образовања и&nbsp;Наставног програма биологије&nbsp; у основној школи у Србији која би се радила студиозно и пажљиво,&nbsp;са реално постављеним циљевима и задацима. У програм&nbsp; биологије&nbsp; треба&nbsp; увести&nbsp; кључне&nbsp; наставне&nbsp;области&nbsp; из биолошке науке,&nbsp; које би се&nbsp; сагледавале комплексно и интегрисано (као&nbsp; у Словенији,&nbsp;Аустрији и Финској), у складу са потребама ученика у реалном животу, &nbsp;а реализовале&nbsp;интерактивном наставом са много више креативности и наставника и ученика.</p> / <p>U doktorskoj disertaciji je&nbsp; na osnovu&nbsp; ranijih istraživanja i&nbsp; zvaničnih dokumenata&nbsp;Ministarstava obrazovanja&nbsp; izložena&nbsp; komparativna&nbsp; analiza&nbsp; obaveznog obrazovanja i Nastavnih&nbsp;programa biologije u Srbiji,&nbsp; Hrvatskoj, Sloveniji, Austriji, Finskoj&nbsp; i Ruskoj&nbsp; Federaciji.&nbsp; Cilj&nbsp;istraživanja&nbsp; je bio da&nbsp; se sagledaju&nbsp; njihove međusobne sličnosti i razlike&nbsp; i mogućnost da se&nbsp;<br />pozitivna iskustva u reformi obrazovanja i programa biologije drugih zemalja &nbsp;primene&nbsp; za&nbsp;unapređenje obrazovnog sistema i nastave biologije u Srbiji&nbsp; u narednom periodu.</p><p>Analizom je utvrđeno postojanje značajnih razlika u obrazovnim sistemima analiziranih&nbsp;zemalja koje se odnose na: strukturu, dužinu trajanja, dužinu trajanja pojedinih obrazovnih&nbsp;ciklusa, broj učenika u odeljenju, broj nastavnih dana u godini, dužinu nastavnog časa, rad škola&nbsp;po smenama, zastupljenost obaveznih, izbornih i fakultativnih predmeta...&nbsp;</p><p>Analizom je utvrđeno postojanje značajne razlike&nbsp; i&nbsp; u zastupljenosti nastavnih &nbsp;predmeta&nbsp;Priroda i Biologija po razredima, nedeljnom i godišnjem fondu časova, vaspitno-obrazovnim&nbsp;ciljevima, obimu sadržaja po razredima, kao i u strukturnim elementima programa.</p><p>Poređenjem Nastavnih programa Prirode i Biologije&nbsp; u&nbsp; analiziranim zemljama, njihove&nbsp;koncepcije i karakteristika, konstatovano je:<br />&ndash;&nbsp; Da su programi rasterećeni od suvišnih sadržaja&nbsp; i da&nbsp; se&nbsp; oslanjaju na savremena&nbsp;naučna dostignuća i perspektivu biologije, kao nauke XXI veka.<br />&ndash;&nbsp; Postoji&nbsp; korelacija&nbsp; sadržaja&nbsp; programa prirodnih nauka i njihova primerenost&nbsp;interesovanjima i potrebama učenika&nbsp; kao i postupnost i sistematičnost u&nbsp;prezentovanju sadržaja.<br />&ndash;&nbsp; Osnovni&nbsp; elementi&nbsp; sadržaja&nbsp; su&nbsp; definisani&nbsp; u skladu sa uzrastom učenika, što&nbsp;doprinosi kvalitetnijem i trajnijem usvajanju znanja i mogućnosti njegove primene u&nbsp;konkretnim životnim situacijama.<br />&ndash;&nbsp; Sadržaji programa Prirode i Biologije vaspitavaju učenike za human odnos prema&nbsp;prirodi i živim bićima, razvijaju njihovu ekološku svest i odgovoran odnos prema&nbsp;sopstvenom zdravlju.<br />&ndash;&nbsp; U&nbsp; Sloveniji, Austriji, Finskoj i Rusiji sadržaji iz biologije se u jednom ili više&nbsp;razreda obrađuju integrisano sa sadržajima Geografije, Fizike i Hemije, &nbsp;sa&nbsp;naglaskom na ekološki aspekt i održivi razvoj&nbsp; u njegovoj realizaciji.<br />&ndash;&nbsp; Programi Prirode i Biologije u Sloveniji, Austriji i Finskoj podeljeni su u&nbsp;<br />tematske oblasti, za koje nisu prcizirani tipovi ni broj časova, tako da nastavnik&nbsp;raspoređuje godišnji fond časova prema karakteristikama nastavnih celina.&nbsp;<br />&ndash;&nbsp; Strukturni elementi programa predmeta Priroda i Biologija su: vaspitno-obrazovni&nbsp;ciljevi, operativni zadaci po razredima, didaktičke preporuke, očekivana postignuća&nbsp;učenička po obrazovnim ciklusima, ocenjivanje i vrednovanje učeničkih postignuća.<br />&ndash;&nbsp; Standardizacijom programskih zahteva i sadržaja, težište obrazovanja je pomereno&nbsp; sa&nbsp;nastavnih programa i nastavnika ka rezultatima učenja i učenicima, što&nbsp; je doprinelo&nbsp;kvalitetnijoj realizaciji nastavnih sadržaja,&nbsp; objektivnijoj proveri učeničkih&nbsp;postignuća, trajnijim i kvalitetnijim znanjima &nbsp;učenika.<br />&ndash;&nbsp; U svim analiziranim zemljama napuštaju se tradicionalni oblici, metode&nbsp; i tehnike&nbsp;rada u nastavi, a primenjuju savremeni didaktičko-metodički&nbsp; pristupi interaktivnog&nbsp;učenja/nastave: timska, problemska, programirana i&nbsp; projektna nastava,&nbsp; neposredno i&nbsp;posredno posmatranje&nbsp; prirodnih pojava, istraživanja,&nbsp; izleti i ekskurzije. Ovakav rad&nbsp;zahteva mnogobrojne učeničke aktivnosti koje se ogledaju u: organizaciji i planiranju&nbsp;aktivnosti na terenu, formiranje baze i zbirki podataka, organizovanje i učestvovanje&nbsp;u debatnim i panel diskusijama, izradu mini projekata i slično.</p><p>U odnosu na Republiku&nbsp; Srbiju, najnovije reforme obrazovanja u Hrvatskoj, Sloveniji,&nbsp;Austriji, Rusiji, a naročito Finskoj odvijale su se brže i temeljnije. Reformi obrazovanja u ovim&nbsp;zemljama je pristupljeno kreativno,&nbsp; sa&nbsp; orijentacijom&nbsp; na moderne uzore, a&nbsp; da&nbsp; pri tom&nbsp; ove zemlje&nbsp;nisu izgubile sopstvenu originalnost&nbsp; u obrazovanju. Ciljevi reforme&nbsp; osnovnog&nbsp; obrazovanja u&nbsp;Srbiji,&nbsp; koja je&nbsp; započela 2000.&nbsp; i završena&nbsp; 2010.&nbsp; godine,&nbsp; su bili slični onima u Finskoj i drugim&nbsp;analiziranim zemljama, ali ona nije dovela do suštinskih promena u osnovnoškolskom obrazovnom sistemu.&nbsp; Postavljeni ciljevi nisu ostvareni,&nbsp; pa isti zadaci ostaju za neku sledeću reformu.</p><p>Važeći&nbsp; Nastavni program biologije u&nbsp; Srbiji (iako je nedavno reformisan)&nbsp; je&nbsp; i dalje&nbsp;tradicionalan, sa linearnim raporedom sadržaja, pisan je kao lista tema sa obimnim sadržajima u&nbsp;svim razredima,&nbsp; bez&nbsp; mogućnosti&nbsp; izbornih sadržaja.&nbsp; Nepostojanje korelacija sadržaja sa drugim&nbsp;predmetima, ali i u okviru same biologije po razredima, onemogućava integrisanje &nbsp;sadržaja.</p><p>Ocene reformisanog Nastavnog programa biologije&nbsp; za osnovnu školu u Srbiji na osnovu&nbsp;provedene ankete za nastavnike&nbsp; biologije, kreću se od krajnje pozitivnih, preko umerenih do&nbsp;krajnje negativnih.</p><p>Zbog navedenih i drugih razloga potrebna je nova korenita promena osnovnog obrazovanja i&nbsp;Nastavnog programa biologije&nbsp; u osnovnoj školi u Srbiji koja bi se radila studiozno i pažljivo,&nbsp;sa realno postavljenim ciljevima i zadacima. U program&nbsp; biologije&nbsp; treba&nbsp; uvesti&nbsp; ključne&nbsp; nastavne&nbsp;oblasti&nbsp; iz biološke nauke,&nbsp; koje bi se&nbsp; sagledavale kompleksno i integrisano (kao&nbsp; u Sloveniji,&nbsp;Austriji i Finskoj), u skladu sa potrebama učenika u realnom životu, &nbsp;a realizovale&nbsp;interaktivnom nastavom sa mnogo više kreativnosti i nastavnika i učenika.</p> / <p>Based on earlier research and official documents of the Ministry of Education, the PhD thesis&nbsp;gives the comparative analysis of compulsory education and Biology curriculum in Serbia, Croatia,&nbsp;Slovenia, Austria, Finland and the Russian Federation. The aim of the research was to observe their&nbsp;similarities and differences and the possibility to use the positive experiences of the reform of education&nbsp;and Biology curriculum in these countries in order to improve educational system and Biology teaching in&nbsp;Serbia in the times to come.</p><p>The analysis shows the existance of considerable differences in educational systems of the anаlyzed&nbsp;countries regarding: structure, length, length of certain educational cycles, number of students in a class,&nbsp;number of schooldays, length of a lesson, working in shifts, presence of compulsory, optional and&nbsp;facultative subjects.&nbsp;</p><p>The analysis also shows a considerable difference in the presence of subjects Nature and Biology&nbsp;in grades, number of lessons per week and year, educational objectives, scope and content in different&nbsp;grades as well as in the structural elements &nbsp;of the curriculum.</p><p>Comparing Nature and Biology curriculums of the analyzed countries, their concepts and&nbsp;characteristics, the following was concluded:<br />-&nbsp; The curriculums are unburdened of unnecessary contents and&nbsp; they rely on contemporary scientific&nbsp;achievements and the perspective of Biology as a science of the 21^st&nbsp;century.<br />-&nbsp; There are cross-curricular links among natural sciences and they are adapted to the interests and&nbsp;needs of students, and there is a gradual and systematic approach in presenting contents.&nbsp;<br />-&nbsp; Basic elements of the content are defined in accordance with the age of students which contributes&nbsp;to a better and more permanent knowledge acquisition and makes it possible to use the knowledge&nbsp;in everyday&nbsp; situations.<br />-&nbsp; The content of Nature and Biology curriculums teach children to be humane to the nature and&nbsp;other living beings, to develop environmental awareness and responsible attitude to their own&nbsp;health.<br />-&nbsp; In Slovenia, Austria, Finland and Russia Biology content is taught together with Geography,&nbsp;Physics and Chemistry content in one or more school years with emphasis on environmental&nbsp;aspects and sustainable development in their realization.&nbsp;<br />-&nbsp; Nature and Biology curriculums in Slovenia, Austria and Finland are divided into units without&nbsp;recommended type or number of classes so that a teacher distributes the annual number of lessons&nbsp;according to the characteristics of the units.<br />-&nbsp; The structural elements of the program of subjects Nature and Biology are: educational aims,&nbsp;operational tasks per year, didactic recommendations, expected achievements of the students in&nbsp;each educational cycle, marking and evaluating students&rsquo; achievements.&nbsp;<br />-&nbsp; By standardizing the program requests and contents, the focus of education&nbsp; is shifted from&nbsp;teaching programs and teachers to the results of learning and students, that contributed to better&nbsp;realization of the teaching contents, more objective evaluation of students&rsquo; achievements, long -lasting and knowledge of a higher quality.<br />-&nbsp; In all the analyzed countries the traditional teaching methods and techniques are dismissed and&nbsp;modern didactic and methodical approach of interactive teaching/learning is applied: team work,&nbsp;problem solving, programmed and project teaching, direct and in direct observation of natural&nbsp;phenomena, research, trips and excursions. This kind of work requires extensive students&rsquo;&nbsp;activities such as: organization and planning of field activities, creation of database and data&nbsp;collections, &nbsp;organizing and participating in debates and panel discussions, development of mini-projects and the like. &nbsp;</p><p>Contrary to Serbia, the latest reforms of education in Croatia, Slovenia, Austria, Russia and&nbsp;specially in Finland were carried out faster and more thoroughly. The education reform in these countries&nbsp;was approached in a creative way, bearing in mind modern models without losing their own national&nbsp;educational originality. The aims of the reform of primary education system in Serbia, which started in&nbsp;2000 and finished in 2010, were similar to those in Finland and other analyzed countries, but it &nbsp;has not&nbsp;made substantial changes in primary education system in Serbia. The set aims were not reached thus the&nbsp;same tasks are left for some future reform.</p><p>The current Biology curriculum in&nbsp; our country (although reformed recently) is still traditional,&nbsp;with linear distribution of the content, written as a list of topics with extensive content in each year without the possibility of optional contents. The lack of correlation with other subjec ts, as well as within Biology content in one year prevents the integration of the contents.</p><p>According to a survey carried out with Biology teachers, the evaluation of the reformed Biology&nbsp;curriculum for primary schools in Serbia vary from utterly positive, moderate to &nbsp;utterly negative.</p><p>For all the mentioned and some other reasons, a new radical change of primary education and&nbsp;Biology curriculum for primary schools in Serbia is necessary. It should be carried out carefully and&nbsp;thoroughly with aims and tasks set objectively. Biology curriculum should include key teaching areas of&nbsp;Biology as a science that would be considered in a complex and integrated way (as in Slovenia, Austria and&nbsp;<br />Finland), in accordance with the needs of students in the real life, and realized through interactive lessons&nbsp;with much more creativity on the part of both teachers and students.</p>

The thesis is a contribution to the analysis of media representation through the use of critical discourse analysis of twelve English written articles by Russian and international media sources. The articles were chosen in relation to the unauthorised Pussy Riot protest in the Cathedral in Moscow back in February 2012, and the societal changes that have taken place thereafter. The analysed articles have been written and published between February 2012 and January 2014. The aim with the study is to see how media sources from different geographical backgrounds described the same events and news.