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Följande uppsats kommer att utreda samt komparera den juridiska institutionen för grundlagsändring mellan länderna Sverige och Spanien. Detta kommer att genomföras i en komparativrättslig metod för att kunna analysera och diskutera vardera lands reglering kring detta ämne. Uppsatsen redovisar hur en grundlagsändringsprocedur går till i praktiken, men även vilka som kan initiera ändringen samt vad för regleringar som finns gällande grundlagsändring. Materialet som kommer att användas är väsentligen de traditionella juridiska källorna samt somliga publikationer från media. Det kommer att dras slutsatser gällande skillnaderna respektive likheterna i slutet av uppsatsen för att summera all information samt analysen. / This following essay will investigate and compare the legal institution for constitutional amendment between the countries of Sweden and Spain. This will be carried out in a comparative legal method in order to be able to analyze and discuss each country’s regulation around this subject. The essay describes how a constitutional amendment procedure works in practice, but also who can initiate the amendment and what regulations exist regarding the constitutional amendment. The material that will be used in this essay is essentially the traditional legal sources as well as some publications from the media. Conclusions will be drawn regarding the differences and similarities at the end of the essay to summarize all the information and the analysis.

Dans le contexte de la mondialisation et de la croissance du pluralisme, ce mémoire s’intéresse à la manière dont les jeunes perçoivent l’identité et la culture québécoise. Si le Québec s’est construit sur la base d’un passé colonial et linguistique qui en fait une province culturellement distincte dans le Canada, ce qui symbolise la nation et l’identité demeure au centre de la négociation des relations interculturelles. Les arts et la culture au Québec demeurent des ancrages de l’identité francophone dans la province, malgré les changements dans les domaines culturels que l’on observe actuellement. De plus en plus portés par les artistes issues de l’immigration, les produits culturels se modifient pour être plus éclatés et personnalisés dans le contexte numérique, ce qui tend à projeter un désintérêt généralisé pour les œuvres québécoises. En ce sens, les représentations qui sont intégrées par l’ensemble des individus tendent à influencer le sentiment d’appartenance à notre collectivité, favorisant une cohésion sociale. Ce mémoire s’intéresse particulièrement à la situation des jeunes Québécois qui ont grandi dans les milieux empreints de diversité tout en étant exposé à la globalisation des arts et de la culture. Qu’ils soient issus de famille immigrante ou de parents nés au Québec, il est pertinent de se questionner sur ce qui demeure dans leur imaginaire collectif pour définir la culture québécoise, mais surtout s’ils y adhèrent dans ce nouveau contexte de pluralité. Par le biais d’entretiens semi-directifs auprès de 12 jeunes entre 18 et 25 ans, cette recherche permettra de souligner les perceptions qu’entretiennent les jeunes envers la culture au Québec, mais également leur rapport à l’identité québécoise et au groupe majoritaire. En s’inscrivant dans la lignée des travaux de Gérard Bouchard sur les imaginaires collectifs, le mémoire permet d’approfondir la façon dont les représentations de la culture et de l’identité québécoise influencent les appartenances individuelles et collectives. Cette démarche s’inscrit dans la volonté d’ouvrir la voie à de nouvelles réflexions sur les relations entre les groupes ethnoculturels en s’intéressant aux dynamiques culturelles et identitaires de la « majorité québécoise » et son rapport à la diversité. / In the context of globalization and pluralism, this thesis focuses on the way young people perceive Quebec identity and culture. If Quebec was built based on a colonial and linguistic past, which makes it a culturally distinct province within Canada, what the nation and identity symbolize remains at the center of intercultural relations. Arts and culture in Quebec remain anchors of francophone identity in the province, despite the changes in cultural practices that we are currently observing. Everyone's cultural practices are changing to be more personalized, which tends to project a general disinterest in Quebec productions especially for younger generations. In this sense, the representations that are integrated by individuals tend to influence the feeling of belonging to the community, defining social cohesion. This research is mainly interested in the situation of young Quebecers who grew up in environments marked by diversity while being exposed to the globalization of arts and culture. Whether they come from immigrant families or parents born in Quebec, it is relevant to question what remains in their collective imagination to define Quebec culture, but especially if they adhere to it in this context of plurality. Through semi- structured interviews with 12 young people between 18 and 25 years old, this research will highlight perceptions of arts and culture in Quebec, but also how their relationship to Quebec identity and the ethnocultural majority. By following in the footsteps of Gérard Bouchard's work on collective imaginations, the research allows us to delve deeper into the way in which representations of Quebec culture and identity influence individual and collective belonging. This approach is part of the desire to open new reflections on the relations between ethnocultural groups by focusing on the cultural and identity dynamics of the “Quebec majority” and its relationship to diversity.

This study intends to discover distinctions between two minority groups, Mormons and Orthodox Jews, compared to a mainstream Protestant group, the Methodists, in terms of newspaper behavior. It intends to probe for differences in newspaper readership frequency and uses (Berelson, 1949) between religious minority group members and majority group members. It originated with the belief that religion (type) and degree of ingroup identification in the minority communities (stronger) would lead to greater newspaper avoidance and limit newspaper use primarily for information/public affairs, rather than Berelson's (1949) other categorizations of socialization, respite, entertainment. Indeed, minority-majority distinctions did not hold. Important differences emerged between religious and more secular individuals in all communities. It was the degree of religiosity that most deeply impacted newspaper use, not denominational ties. The more individuals scored highly on a "religion-as-spiritual-quest" factor, the less they read newspapers, particularly the business newspaper. For "spiritual questors" of all denominations, the house of worship, with its myriad activities, served as a leisure-time base and, for them, recreational use of the newspaper was minimal. / Communication Science / D. Litt. et Phil. (Communication)

The aim of this dissertation is to illuminate the interplay between female agency and legal regulation in Sweden during the period 1760-1860. The material chosen for the study relates to matters concerning women that were brought before the Judiciary Inspection, the highest legal authority in Sweden. From its central position in the state hierarchy, this court was an arena in which the central power could identify and find solutions to problems important for the stability and development of society. The study identifies issues that encouraged women to bring proceedings before the court, or prompted other parties to bring women to court. The dissertation has analysed the actions taken and arguments made in these cases by women, their counterparts, and court representatives, in relation to the regulations or the absence of regulations in each particular situation. This has shown the room for manoeuvre that could be achieved, and how the women could achieve it – in terms of right to manage property, economic agency and debt responsibility, finding ways to support themselves and their families, or affirming their positions as mothers and mistresses of households. In this way, the dissertation illuminates the freedom of agency in practice that has often been seen as contradictory in a strictly patriarchal society like early modern Sweden. The dissertation also traces some important changes over time, including the increasingly diverse class background of litigants over the period in question, shifts in understandings of property, work, family, and the meaning of legal majority. The central diachronic claims are firstly that the legal system shifted over time from one primarily based upon status, circumstance, and local opinion to one based on formalized understanding of the law founded upon contract and clear legal definitions, and that this had important implications for women’s room for manoeuvre in the courts and in society. Secondly, that the negotiation process contributed to historical change by forcing solutions to contradictions and specifying terms of property ownership and legal majority.

在托克維爾政治思想中，民主一直是核心的議題，也引發大西洋兩岸知識界熱烈的爭論。直到今天，政治、學術、新聞等各界仍經常引用他的觀點。本文即就托克維爾有關民主體制的思想進行研究，並發現可分梳為民主社會一般傾向、民主社會潛在的腐化危機，及民主體制存續之道三個面向進行討論。而這三個相關的部分，更可就其內在邏輯整合而成共和主義研究途徑。 首先，在民主社會的特徵及其發展方面，托克維爾認為民主社會強調國民主權及身份平等，雖然使社會充滿活力；但也易於衝動，缺乏遠見，造成庸俗的中產階級政治。同時在資本主義及工業革命影響下，可能會形成個體主義，使得人際關係疏離，且對公共事務冷漠；也造成物質主義，只想追求物質享受。大多數勞工也會有異化現象，淪為工作的奴隸。不過，民主社會也會發展出諸如結社、地方自治等鍛鍊政治自由的機制，提供個體自主性及公民性格寬廣的公共領域。托克維爾並主張國家利用宗教、法律培養公民參與的熱情與美德。這種觀念下的國家對人生計劃並不中立，顯現共和主義多於自由主義的立場。 其次，在民主體制潛藏的腐化危機方面，托克維爾指出三種可能形式。一是因身份平等可能切斷封建社會原有的社會紐帶，使得個體孤立無援，必須服從統治的多數，終而導致一種多數專制─以一種社會一致性窒息個體的思想。二是因公民追求物質主義過甚，竟而完全退出公共領域，並召喚一種保護性權力，在民主自由的形式下，溫柔親切地奴役人民。此亦即民主專制。三是在民主革命初期或資本主義發達之後，必將出現中央集權。國家為解決工業社會複雜的問題，因應人民龐雜的需求，在多數授權下集中所有權力，破壞了政治自由得以維繫的各種機制。 第三，在民主體制的維繫方面，托克維爾的主張也充滿共和主義的色彩。例如，為使公民保持自由的技藝，他認為，公民應參與鄉鎮自治、結社（特別是政治結社）、陪審團。而在培養公共精神的美德方面，托克維爾強調宗教的重要性。藉由教條式信仰，宗教可培養公民認識「適當理解的自利原則」。而且，民主社會也有賴宗教提供一種道德與知識的權威。在這一方面，女性公民扮演了傳承與複製的重要角色，因而在托克維爾的民主思想中也占有一席之地。 本文最後提出國民主權、身份平等、公私領域、社會共識等四方面的引申討論，進一步分析托克維爾共和主義式的民主思想，對當前主流民主理論所能提供的貢獻。此外，也依個人見解評論其不足之處。 / Democracy has always been a core concept and a controversial issue in Tocqueville’s political thought at both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. Politicians, scholars as well as journalists still quote Tocqueville’s points at the present time. This thesis studies Tocqueville’s democratic thought, and analyzed it in three aspects: the general tendency of democratic societies, the potential danger of corruption in democratic societies, and the maintenance of democratic system. With the interlock between these aspects, this thesis integrated them into an approach of republicanism to Tocqueville’s democratic thought. For the first aspect, Tocqueville believed that with the emphasis on popular sovereignty and equality of condition, democratic societies will bring themselves diversified vitality. However, the societies will also be passionate and myopic, as the characteristics of mediocre bourgeois politics. Influenced by capitalism and industrial revolution, the prevailing individualism in democratic societies results in social alienation, public apathy and overwhelming materialism. Most workers will degrade into slaves of their works. On the other hand, democracy will promote associations, local self-governments which provide public spheres to practice autonomy and citizenship through the art of political freedom. Furthermore, Tocqueville requested the states to cultivate the passion and virtue of civic participation by means of religion and law. States under this requirement is not neutral toward citizens’ life plans, and seems more republican than liberal. For the second aspect, Tocqueville pointed out three possible forms of corruption from democratic societies: majority tyranny, democratic tyranny and centralization. First, majority tyranny results in extreme exploitation of equality of condition which cut off the original social bonds in feudal societies, hence isolate the individuals and render them totally helpless but to obey the ruling majority. Majority tyranny stifles citizen’s originality with social conformity. Secondly, mainly on account of materialism, citizens would escape into private life and material happiness, and moreover give away thoroughly public affairs to a tutelage power to enslave people gently within the liberal democratic form. That is democratic tyranny. Thirdly, centralization will present itself definitely, either during the early stage of democratic revolution or after capital economy is delivered. In order to solve the complicated problems in industrial societies, respond to a lot of diverse demands, the state concentrate all the power under the delegation of the majority, and destroy all kinds of mechanism which sustaining the art of political freedom. For the third aspect, Tocqueville offered republican solution to the maintenance of democratic system. He thought that citizens should take part in township self-governance, associations (especially political associations) and the jury. He also emphasized the importance of religion in teaching the virtue of public spirit, as well as cultivating the knowledge of “the principle self-interest properly understood” by dogmatic belief. In the same way, religion affords ethical and intellectual authority to democratic societies. In this regard, the female citizens play so important part of sustaining and reproducing these ethical and intellectual lessons that Tocqueville had to illuminate the role of women in his democratic thought. In addition to these interpretations, this thesis presents four related concepts for further discourse: popular sovereignty, equality of condition, public and private sphere and social consensus. Based on these discourses, the thesis evaluates the merit and deficiency of Tocqueville’s thought of republican democracy.

在資本主義盛行之今日，「公司治理」已成為舉世矚目之焦點。自從1997年亞洲爆發金融危機後，許多國際組織、非政府組織及亞洲經濟體投入大量的資源與時間研究此一議題，認為完善的公司治理是提昇企業策略能力及國際競爭力的最佳良方。在台灣，隨著資本主義盛行的浪潮，近二十年來產業轉型、高科技事業蓬勃發展的幕後功臣，除了政府主導科技研發計劃與租稅優惠及專案補助措施外，首推「創業投資業」；創業投資業之所以成為台灣高科技產業之推手，主要在於其「投資後管理」之積極性、策略性功能。根據經濟合作暨發展組織（OECD）於2002年所發表之研究報告顯示，創業投資業投資額佔GDP比率與該國公司治理績效之評比成正相關，由此可見創業投資業對提昇公司治理的貢獻。 本研究之目的在探討創業投資業於各投資階段，增進轉投資事業公司治理之最佳實務作法，期能提供我國創業投資業者參酌、運用，以發揮其對被投資公司積極、正面之監督控管功能，並符合公司治理的四個基本原則：公平性（Fairness）、透明性（Transparency）、課責性（Accountability）、責任性（Responsibility），建立二者間良性、穩定的溝通模式及信賴關係，讓創業投資業繼續為台灣產業競爭力加分。 「創業投資」（Venture Capital）又稱「風險投資」，而專為投資於高科技、高風險、具發展潛力且成長快速之事業所募集之資金，則為「創業投資基金」（Venture Capital Fund）。創業投資的投資模式是在高風險、高報酬的前提下，對具成長潛力的被投資公司提供中、長期資本及經營、資源、網絡的加值服務，協助投資標的快速成長，克服各項經營問題，申請上市櫃，以實現其高額之資本利得；因此，創業投資業與被投資公司間之投資關係，是建立在相互合作之互信基礎，互謀長期最大利益，而創業投資業最重視的則是，投資資金是否能順利回收及獲利，被投資公司的獲利是否有如預期、體制運作是否健全，進而進入資本市場，讓其所投入之資金有退出機制。 公司治理 (Corporate Governance) 這個議題是從美國發展出來的，當初國內學者對該名詞的翻譯不盡相同，有譯為「公司管理」、「公司治理」者；亦有譯為「公司監控」、「公司管控」者；在台灣統稱為「公司治理」，以兼顧管理、監控及自治、自律之功能。依據中華公司治理協會之定義：「公司治理是一種指導與管理的機制，以落實公司經營者責任為目的，在兼顧其他利害關係人利益下，藉由加強公司績效，保障股東權益」。 良好的公司治理必須符合四個原則，分別是公平性 (Fairness)、透明性 (Transparency)、課責性 (Accountability)以及責任性 (Responsibility)。公平性指的是對公司各投資人以及利益相關者予以公平合理的對待；透明性指公司財務以及其他相關資訊，必須適時適當地揭露；課責性指公司董事以及高階主管的角色與責任應該明確劃分；責任性則指公司應遵守法律以及社會期待的價值規範。 依據OECD公司治理原則之說明，良好的公司治理具有：提高經濟效率、降低資金成本、健全財務結構之基礎等功能。 在台灣，上市公司與大多數國家一樣，公司的所有權結構大都傾向於具有控制股東，而控制股東會透過金字塔結構、交叉持股與互為董事等方式而達到控制公司的目的，在此情況下，控制股東極可能透過利益輸送和掏空公司資產等方式，剝奪奪小股東的財富，並衍生道德危機與逆選擇的相關代理成本，而引發核心代理問題。 本研究發現創業投資業推動公司治理之誘因如下列： 一、期藉由灌輸經營團隊公司治理--「課責性」及「責任性」之基本原則，塑造正確之價值觀，建立企業長治久安之基礎。 二、強調公司治理--「公平性」之基本原則，保障少數股東之權益，維護創業投資業持有股權之股東權益及價值。 三、確信良好之公司治理會提昇轉投資事業之獲利能力及市場價值，同時增加創業投資業退出時所獲之資本利得。 本研究發現創業投資業評估轉投資事業公司治理之重點如下列： 一、轉投資事業之財會數據之正確性、可信賴度及資訊透明度、詳細度。 二、轉投資事業股東成員、股權結構及背景，及具實質影響力之股東特性。 三、轉投資事業董事會運作之情形，如：董事會成員、董事選任方式、董事會議題及會議進行模式。 四、轉投資事業經營團隊之商譽及誠信度，各項法令之遵循程度，公司章程之適法性及可執行程度。 五、董事會、董事長、總經理之權責劃分是否適當及課責性是否落實。 六、轉投資事業之會計制度是否建立且落實執行，以避免轉投資事業做假帳，並確保能按時提供財務報表。 本研究針對創業投資業推動創建期事業公司治理之方法建議如下： 一、建立企業主正規之「公司法制」觀念。 二、正視「公司章程」之法律地位及重要性。 三、導入「股份有限公司」之運作機制，建立「股東會」、「董事會」及「監察人」之基本功能及符合法令規定之決策模式。 四、建制符合「內部控制機制」之作業系統及程序。 本研究針對創業投資業推動擴充期事業公司治理之方法建議如下： 一、善用「公司章程」及「法令規章」解決「核心代理問題」。 二、強化「董事會」、「監察人」職能，推動「上市上櫃公司治理實務守則」。 本研究針對創業投資業推動成熟期事業公司治理之方法則建議由實踐股東行動主義著手；包括： 一、創投業於投資前，應確信公司治理之重要性，將投資標的推動公司治理之績效，納入投資組合考量。 二、執行投資後，創投業應經常與公司重要股東與經營階層充份溝通及於董事會、股東會中充份表達意見，以促使公司控制股東及經營階層重視少數股東之權益。 關鍵字：創業投資業、創建期、擴充期、成熟期、公司治理、核心代理問題、控制股東、公司章程、股東會、董事會、監察人 / According to the OECD research report released in 2002 that existed a positive relevant between the investment amount of venture capitalist to the GDP and the corporate governance performance in the most countries worldwide. The contribution of venture capitalist for the corporate governance is obviously numerous. The objectives of this thesis is intend to research venture capitalist how to enhance the investee corporate governance in the investees’ start-up, development, maturing stages practicably. Basing on this study, both of the venture capitalist and the investee can conduct a beneficial and stable communication manners and relationship. In Taiwan, most of the listing companies are same as the developed countries; the majority shareholders almost constitute the whole shareholders’ structure and possess the great majority voting rights. Under this circumstance, the majority shareholders instinctively intend to create the arms-in-length transactions to deprive the minority the shareholders’ benefits and wealth, and cause the core agent problems. The study was conducted by analysis, induction, and case study methodology covering three samples of venture capitalist. The results of this study are follows: 1.At the investees’ start-up stage, the measures of venture capitalist enhances corporate governance are listed as below: 1)Educating the business owner to establish the corporate legal concept. 2)Paying much attention about the article to follow the company law. 3)Introducing and following the company law’s operating structure, and establish the “shareholders”, “board of directors” and “supervisors” basic functions and decision model. 4)Establish the internal control system and procedures. 2. At the investees’ development stage, the measures of venture capitalist enhances corporate governance are listed as below: 1)Practicing the article and regulation to overcome the core agent problems. 2)Empowering the board of directors and supervisors function, and progressing the “Corporate Governance Best Practice Principles for TSEC/GTSM Listed Companies” in the investees business running. 3. At the investees’ maturing stage, the venture capitalist suggested to practice the shareholders activism; for example: taking the corporate governance performance into the investment evaluation. Key Words: venture capitalist, start-up stage, development stage, maturing stage, corporate governance, core agent problem, majority shareholders, article, shareholders’ meeting, the board of directors supervisor

Les sociétés sont traditionnellement classées en sociétés de personnes et sociétés de capitaux. L’intuitus personae constitue le fondement sur lequel repose cette distinction. Fort présent dans les sociétés de personnes, l’intuitus personae serait, en théorie, absent dans les sociétés de capitaux. Toutefois, cette distinction classique ne correspond plus, aujourd’hui, à la réalité. Nous assistons, en effet, à la résurgence de la considération de la personne dans les sociétés de capitaux à travers le développement de techniques contractuelles dont le but est de contrôler l’accès à ces sociétés. Ce mouvement de personnalisation a été renforcé par le législateur, d’abord, par la création de la société par actions simplifiée, mais aussi par la reconnaissance, dans les sociétés cotées, de la notion de concert ou encore d’un droit de sortie au profit des actionnaires minoritaires. La consécration de la validité de l’exclusion, qu’elle soit conventionnelle ou le résultat d’un mécanisme spécifique du droit des sociétés comme le retrait obligatoire ou le coup d’accordéon, participe également de ce phénomène. Cette présence a des conséquences majeures sur le fonctionnement de ces sociétés, mais aussi sur le droit des sociétés en général. En effet, d’une part, la reconnaissance de la primauté des relations entre actionnaires sur les capitaux offre une nouvelle perspective de la notion d’affectio societatis et du principe majoritaire. Et d’autre part, la mise en oeuvre de l’intuitus personae dans des sociétés dans lesquelles il est censé être absent affecte la cohérence même du droit des sociétés en anéantissant la summa divisio sur laquelle ce droit est bâti et en dénaturant le choix du pluralisme juridique, fait de longue date par le législateur français, qui commande en présence d’une pluralité de structures offertes aux opérateurs, une distinction de chacune d’elles reposant sur des critères précis et invariables. / Companies are traditionally classified into partnerships and joint stock companies. Intuitus personae is the basis for this distinction. Clearly present in partnership companies, intuitus personae is, in theory, absent in joint stock companies. However, this traditional distinction does not correspond today to reality. We are, in fact, witnessing a resurgence of the consideration of the individual in joint stock companies by means of contractual techniques whose aim is to control access to these companies. This resurgence has been further strengthened by the legislator, first by the creation of the status of simplified stock company and also by the recognition in listed companies of the existence of concerted action and a right to voluntary withdrawal benefiting minority stockholders. The admission of the validity of exclusion, either conventional or resulting from mechanisms specific to company law such as a squeeze out or even an “accordion squeeze”, add to the growth of this phenomenon. This presence of intuitus personae has major implications on the functioning of joint stock companies and on company law, in general. Indeed, on the one hand, the primacy of shareholder relationships over capital offers a new perspective of the notion of affectio societatis and the principle of majority rule. On the other hand, the introduction of intuitus personae into companies where this concept should have been absent affects the coherence of company law by destroying the summa divisio basis on which this law is founded and by distorting the legal pluralism long ago adopted by the French legislator which, in the presence of diverse legal structures, necessitates a distinction amongst them based on precise and invariable criteria.