C’est au cours de l’étude de la distinction entre la formation et l'exécution du contrat que s’est imposée une réflexion sur une autre alternative au modèle du contrat à exécution instantanée : le contrat de durée. En consacrant un modèle de contrat hors du temps le droit contractuel s’est construit sur une chimère. En effet, en niant l’infiltration du temps dans le contrat, les frontières entre la formation et l’exécution se sont fissurées. Devant cet état de fait, les attentes de clarification de la réforme furent nombreuses. Cependant, la réforme du droit des contrats bien que codifiant les apports épars de la jurisprudence n’en a pas tiré les conséquences de fond en consacrant une possible incomplétude du contrat à sa formation. En continuant à ignorer l’impact de la durée sur les contrats qui s’exécutent dans le temps, la réforme a aggravé l’éclatement des concepts et a empêché le droit commun d’évoluer.L’auteur s’est attaché donc à vouloir englober l’ensemble de la réalité contractuelle en faisant émerger à côté du modèle du contrat échange, le modèle du contrat de durée. La proposition d’un contrat de durée serait donc de nature à réconcilier le droit contractuel entre la culture contractuelle de l’échange et la culture contractuelle de la coopération qui prend naissance dans la durée. La durée du contrat transforme le contrat et émancipe son exécution en permettant au moment de la formation une certaine incomplétude. / While studying the distinction between the preparation and the execution of a contract, a reflection on a new alternative to the contract of instantaneous performance imposed itself: an adjustable circumstance-based contract. Devoted to a timeless model of contract, contract law has built itself on a pipe dream. Indeed, the negation of time’s infiltration in a contract led the boundaries between preparation and execution to crack apart. In front of this situation the expectations for clarification with the reform were numerous. However, the 2016 reform of contract law, although systematising the scattered provisions of case law, did not drew the needed conclusions by sanctioning the possible incompleteness of a contract in its preparation. Still ignoring time’s impact in time-based contracts, the 2016 reform has worsened the splitting of concepts and prevented the evolution of common right. Thus the author focused on embracing the whole of contractual reality and developing alongside the swap contract: the adjustable circumstance-based contract. Contract law has indeed been confronted to types of contract that struggled to integrate duration but which, in the need to happen alongside a unique swap model, distorted its concepts. This is why the offer of an adjustable circumstance-based contract would be able to reconcile, in contract law, the contract culture of swap and the contract culture of cooperation which arise in duration.

The aim of the thesis is to create price maps of rental flats in Brno . This maps are elaborated in graphical and electronical form. There is also description of obatining and evaluating of data concerning rents of flats. Data are membered according to the type of flat and city parts of Brno. Analysis of data is a part of the thesis as well.

In the first part of this thesis, the assembly of particular types of building work price documentation is solved, depending on the state of the in-process project documentation. Consequently, the utilization of the documentation in particular administration types is presented, and possibilities of the building work funding are adduced. Specific types of the building work price documentations are configured for the public buildings, housing projects, transportation and water-management buildings. The last part of this thesis is devoted to the overview of particular price and project documentation types that should be elaborated in different phases of building work life cycle.

Introduction – This thesis in Building Engineering at Jönköping University, in collaboration with Tyréns Sweden AB, examines the issues surrounding 3D models as construction documents from a legal perspective and investigates how digitization affects stakeholders in the construction industry. The goal of the study is to explore a relevant and interesting research area in order to contribute to knowledge development and the advancement of new theories or methods in the field. Method – The study will employ qualitative research, including primary data collection through interviews, to address the research questions posed in the report. The authors have chosen this method to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the respondents' perspectives and identify important themes and patterns. The interviews were conducted with participants from various sectors of the construction industry to obtain a broader picture of the subject. Results – The study revealed that there are certain legal barriers to the use of 3D models as drawing documentation. These barriers are related to a lack of knowledge and uncertainty in handling the models. This includes issues of copyright, liability, and evidential value. There is a need to update current regulations to facilitate the management of digital models. Analysis – The analysis of the results clarifies that industry standards and clearer guidelines would prevent uncertainties and address knowledge gaps in the use of BIM and 3D models. An industry standard could have facilitated a smoother transition to a more digitized construction industry. There is also a need for education in the field for professionals and decision-making stakeholders. Discussion – The discussion focuses on possible solutions to the identified problems, such as the development of standards and guidelines, education, and regulatory updates. There is also a need to raise awareness about the legal aspects of using 3D models in the construction industry, as the uncertainty regarding their legal status is high. Legally, it is possible to use 3D models as contractual documents, but the study shows that concerns about the legal aspects are a reason for the weak implementation. Keywords – 3D model, 3D design, BIM, Building Information Modeling, construction documents, contractual law, and copyright. / Introduktion – Detta examensarbete inom Byggnadsteknik vid Jönköpings Tekniska högskola i samarbete med Tyréns Sverige AB undersöker problematiken med 3D-modeller (tredimensionell modell) som bygghandlingar ur ett juridiskt perspektiv och undersöker hur digitaliseringen påverkar aktörer inom konstruktion. Studiens mål är att undersöka ett relevant och intressant forskningsområde för att bidra till kunskapsutveckling och utveckling av nya teorier eller metoder inom området. Metod – Studien kommer att använda kvalitativ forskning som inkluderar primärdatainsamling genom intervjuer för att besvara frågeställningarna i rapporten. Författarna har valt denna metod för att uppnå en omfattande förståelse av respondenternas perspektiv och identifiera viktiga teman och mönster. Intervjuerna genomfördes med respondenter från olika delar av byggbranschen för att få en bredare bild av ämnet. Resultat – Studien visade att det fanns vissa juridiska hinder för användningen av 3D-modeller som ritningsunderlag. Dessa hinder kopplas till bristande kunskap och osäkerhet i hantering av modellerna. Detta inkluderar frågor om upphovsrätt, ansvar och bevisvärde. Det finns ett behov att uppdatera dagens regelverk för att lättare hantera digitala modeller. Analys – I analys av resultatet klargörs det att en branschstandard och tydligare riktlinjer skulle förebygga osäkerheterna och förebygga kunskapsluckor för användandet av BIM och 3D-modeller. En branschstandard hade kunnat leda till en säkrare övergång till en mer digitaliserad byggbransch. Det finns också ett behov av utbildning inom området för yrkesverksamma och beslutsfattande aktörer. Diskussion – Diskussionen fokuserar på möjliga lösningar på de identifierade problemen, så som utveckling av standarder och riktlinjer, utbildning och uppdatering av regelverk. Det finns också ett behov av att öka medvetenheten om de juridiska aspekterna av användningen av 3D-modeller inom byggbranschen då osäkerheten av den juridiska statusen är hög. Juridiskt sett går det att använda sig av 3D- modeller som kontraktshandling, men studien visar att oron för det juridiska är en anledning till den svaga implementeringen. Nyckelord – 3D-modell, 3D-projektering, BIM, Building Information Modeling,, bygghandling, kontraktsha juridik och upphovsrätt

La trascendencia práctica del tema del régimen jurídico de las joint ventures es indudable. En los Estados miembros de la Unión Europea, y más especialmente en España, las joint ventures remiten a una idea de mayor eficiencia económica, permitiendo a las empresas formar alianzas entre ellas, y así mejorar su competitividad, adaptando sus estructuras a las dimensiones crecientes de los mercados europeos y mundiales.Las joint ventures no están reguladas como tales en ninguna legislación nacional europea. El derecho comunitario se concentra por su parte en el análisis de los efectos de estas operaciones sobre la competencia. Las joint ventures adquieren en la práctica, únicamente, su contenido jurídico.Este estudio tiene por objetivo presentar un análisis a la vez teórico y práctico del régimen jurídico de las joint ventures, intentando definir el "valor añadido" del trabajo del jurista profesional cuando interviene en la creación y el funcionamiento de las joint ventures. La adopción de esta óptica funcionalista permite integrar el análisis de los diversos aspectos jurídicos de las joint ventures, sus estructuras contractuales y societarias así como su tratamiento en derecho de la competencia, que se abordan tradicionalmente en estudios separados, e insistir en la interelación existente entre las diversas ramas del derecho afectadas. Este estudio se concentra esencialmente en las cuestiones planteadas por las joint ventures en el ámbito del derecho de las obligaciones y del derecho societario.El jurista profesional desempeña, en primer lugar, una función de naturaleza organizativa, creando un conjunto de reglas obligatorias (reglas jurídicas) para todas las empresas participantes en la operación, de acuerdo con sus intereses estratégicos. El resultado puede ser, por ejemplo, la conclusión de un simple contrato, la constitución de una AEIE o la de una sociedad de capital. La complejidad de la organización jurídica de la joint venture impide estudiar de manera separada, como dos piezas aisladas, el llamado acuerdo de base de la joint venture por un lado, y la sociedad eventualmente constituida, la llamada filial común, por otro. El hecho de no entender la filial común como parte de un todo unitario y más complejo no permite describir correctamente las especialidades del régimen aplicable a dicha sociedad frente a sociedades constituidas en otros contextos económicos. La organización compleja de las joint ventures se diferencia de otros negocios jurídicos complejos por razón de su finalidad económica específica, la de establecer una alianza entre empresas. Tal como indica el derecho comunitario de la competencia, la joint venture es una operación en la que: (i) participan dos o más empresas independientemente activas en el mercado; (ii) se agrupan recursos necesarios al desarrollo de una actividad económica común en el seno eventualmente, pero no obligatoriamente, de una entidad separada (la llamada empresa común"); (iii) las empresas participantes ejercen un control conjunto sobre dicha actividad económica común. Estos tres elementos forman el núcleo de la definición de la joint venture en derecho.La cuestión de la validez y eficacia jurídica de los pactos presentes en el contrato complejo de joint venture, cuando implica la existencia de una sociedad de capital, es la que más dificultades plantea. El problema respecto a la joint venture, como respecto a muchos otros contratos complejos, es organizar un discurso sobre el uso de la libertad y sus consecuencias en el ámbito del derecho de sociedades.Mientras el jurista profesional organiza la joint venture, atrae también la atención del legislador sobre las necesidades jurídicas de las empresas que deciden "aliarse" en el seno de una joint venture. Los pactos presentes en los contratos complejos de joint venture no dependen únicamente del contenido del derecho aplicable a la sociedad "filial común" por ejemplo, sino también de la creatividad de los juristas profesionales. Las finalidades a cubrir por el contrato lo serán en regla general mediante combinaciones originales y complejas de mecanismos jurídicos, demostrándose una vez más el papel relevante de la práctica en la formación del derecho. Como consecuencia, puede observarse una tendencia a la flexibilización del derecho aplicable a las sociedades de capital, sobre todo en los países europeos continentales. Esta adaptación del derecho a la realidad práctica se observa también, y de manera significativa, en otras ramas del derecho, como en derecho de la competencia donde el legislador intenta introducir un tratamiento cada vez más pragmático de los efectos producidos por las joint ventures sobre los mercados. El análisis de la organización jurídica de las joint ventures en la práctica demuestra, sin embargo, la falta de utilidad y de oportunidad de una ordenación legal de la joint venture como tal en Europa. Como en el caso de la organización de la empresa, basta con que los operadores "candidatos" a la alianza encuentren en el derecho positivo los legal tools, o instrumentos jurídicos, adaptados a los objetivos económicos legítimos que persiguen ( por ejemplo, diversas formas sociales, la AIE, la UTE, la cuenta en participación etc), y sobre la base de los cuales puedan conservar y reforzar el sentimiento de confianza que necesitan tener en la operación y en su "aliado" para alcanzar con éxito estos objetivos. / This study provides a comprehensive analysis of both practical and theoretical legal issues raised by joint ventures in Europe. In the European Union member states and especially in Spain, joint ventures are viewed as a high efficient strategic operation - allowing alliances between firms, which may improve their competitiveness and adapt them to the growing dimensions of European markets and to the new global economy. Joint ventures are not organised as such by any statute law in Europe. European law focuses on the analysis of the effects they may produce on competition. Joint ventures obtain a legal content only in practice.The aim of this study is to define the "added value" of the practical work of lawyers, when they take part in processes of creation of joint ventures. This question allows to integrate the analysis of different legal aspects of joint ventures - their contractual and corporate structure as well as their legal treatment under competition law - which are traditionally treated in separate studies, and to point out the existence of on-going interfaces between them. This study focuses essentially on the contractual and corporate aspects of joint ventures. Practitioners set up, first of all, mechanisms which are compulsory - i.e. legal rules - for the firms involved in the operation according to their strategic interests. The result may be, for instance, the creation of a mere "contractual joint venture", of an European Economic Interest Grouping, or the incorporation of a "joint venture company". The complexity of the joint venture legal organisation prevents from studying separately the so-called "joint venture agreement" on which is based the operation, and the company which may be incorporated within it. The joint venture company is only a part of a more complex ensemble, which needs to be understood as such in order to be correctly analysed.The complex legal organisation of joint ventures differs from any other complex legal organisations because of its specific purpose, ie. establish a strategic alliance between firms. It aims to organise an operation in which: (i) participate two or more firms independently active on the market; (ii) are gathered the resources necessary to carry out a common business activity, possibly but not obligatory within a separate entity; and (iii) the participating firms jointly control the common business activity. Those three features are at the basis of the legal definition of joint ventures.The question of the legal validity and efficiency of the terms and conditions present in incorporated joint venture agreements is the more problematic one for the practitioners. The main difficulty in relation with joint ventures like in relation with many other complex agreements is to determine the limits of use of contractual freedom in company law.While organising the operation, the practitioners are also drawing the attention of the legislator on the legal needs of the firms willing to enter into alliances. The terms and conditions present in joint venture agreements depend not only on the content of the statute law applicable to the joint venture company for example, but also on the creative skills of the practitioners. The joint venture agreement needs to cover different purposes generally through original and complex combinations of legal mechanisms, proving once again the relevant role of practice in the generation of law.As a result, it is possible to observe a certain "flexibilization" of the rules in company law, especially in continental Europe. This new tendency develops in parallel with the movement observed in competition law towards a more realistic and pragmatic analysis of joint venture effects on the markets.The analysis of the legal organisations of joint ventures existing in practice demonstrates however the lack of necessity for a statutory regulation of this (strategic) operation in Europe. Like in the case of the organisation of a firm, the economic players willing to enter into strategic alliances only need to find in statute law different "legal tools" which may adapt their legitimate economic interests - such as different company forms, the Economic Interest Grouping, the partnership - and on the basis of which they can conserve and reinforce the confidence they need to have in their partner and in the operation in order to achieve successfully their purposes.

Le professionnel que l'on croyait capable de défendre ses intérêts, par opposition au salarié ou au consommateur, s'est révélé tout autant victime de contrats déséquilibrés depuis quelques décennies. L'apparition de puissantes entreprises privées dans différents secteurs entraîne, de toute évidence, une inégalité entre les professionnels. Notre étude souligne la complexité de trouver un juste critère pour identifier de manière juste ce qu'est un professionnel partie faible. Il n'est pas possible de dire si, de manière générale, telle entreprise est plus puissante qu'une autre, car la personne morale partie au contrat peut cacher des intérêts difficiles à cerner au premier abord. Le juge ne peut pas non plus être l'arbitre autoritaire des prix sans risquer un détournement de sa fonction. Nous développerons le parti suivant : un contrat entre professionnels est dit d'adhésion lorsque celui-ci n'a pas donné lieu à une négociation idoine ; le juge doit alors s'efforcer de regarder le processus de pourparlers ainsi que les circonstances qui ont précédé la convention. De multiples critères peuvent aider le juge, tels que la taille de chaque entreprise, les parts de marché, les propos échangés par les parties, leur bonne ou mauvaise foi ou encore les efforts engagés par elles. Si le choix de l'analyse des négociations nous apparaît ultimement le plus juste, nous tiendrons cependant compte de ses limites. Il serait illusoire de penser que le juge peut toujours parvenir de manière certaine à connaître l'intégralité des circonstances antérieures au contrat. C'est pourquoi nous ajouterons à l'analyse des négociations un système de présomptions - quoique réfragables - lorsque la disproportion des prestations ou la différence de taille des entreprises ne laisse pas de place au doute. Nous mettrons enfin en lumière les stratégies employées par les parties fortes pour contourner cette analyse des négociations, comme des stipulations néfastes ou une tactique d'internationalisation. Il sera donc préféré une impérativité renforcée en droit national ainsi qu'en droit international. Une fois l'analyse des négociations effectuée, nous essayerons de proposer des sanctions à la hauteur du phénomène. Le juge, selon nous, doit être en mesure de modifier le contrat de façon souple, aussi bien de manière rétroactive que par un changement en cours d'exécution du contrat. Le caractère extrême de certains comportements contractuels nous incite à réfléchir à la possibilité d'un droit pénal plus dissuasif ou bien un droit « quasi pénal » sanctionnant ces comportements de manière plus appropriée. Néanmoins, c'est surtout au niveau de la procédure que se joue la protection contractuelle des professionnels. Un référé ajusté à cet objectif a tout lieu de répondre aux exigences de célérité qui gênent les parties faibles dans leurs démarches. Nous soulignerons aussi l'importance d'un système d'actions collectives qui surmontent efficacement l'écueil du coût du procès. À l'inverse, la sécurité juridique des entreprises nous conduira à proposer une procédure de protection par un système de droit doux. Première partie : L'identification du contrat d'adhésion entre professionnels. Deuxième partie : Le traitement judiciaire des contrats d'adhésion entre professionnels. / The professional, supposed to be able to defend his interests, by opposition to the employee or the consumer, has proven to also be victim of imbalanced contracts for a few decades. The emergence of powerful private companies in various sectors clearly leads to inequalities between professionals. Our study underlines the difficulty to find the best criterion to identify what a professional weaker party is. It is impossible to say that globally such company is stronger than another because the legal person party to the agreement can hide many interests, which are hard to seize at first sight. Nor can the judge arbitrate prices in an authoritarian way without risking a misappropriation of his part. We shall side for this idea: a business-to-business agreement is to be qualified of adhesion contract as long as it does not give place to adequate bargaining; so the judge has to look the bargaining process and the circumstances preceding the contract. Many criteria can help the judge such as the size of the company, market parts, exchanged words, the good or bad faith of the parties or the efforts they have made. If we consider the bargain analysis as the ultimately rightest choice, we have to contemplate its limitations. It would not be realistic to consider that the judge could always discover every circumstance prior to the agreement. This is why we shall join a system of presumptions - albeit rebuttable - to the bargain analysis, when the difference of size of companies or the disproportion of provisions is obvious. We shall put into light the strategies used by strongest parts to bypass the bargain analysis, such as harmful clauses or internationalization tactics. Thus, we shall opt for high obligatory standards, as well as in national law than in international law. Once the bargain analysis is done, we shall try to suggest sanctions adapted to the concern. The judge, in our opinion, must be able to modify the agreement in a very flexible way, either retroactively or during the implementation of the said agreement. The gravity of various contractual behaviors must lead us to think about a form of criminal law or a "quasi criminal" law in order to combat those behaviors in a more suitable mean. Nevertheless, the protection of the professional weaker part is also to be dealt on a procedural ground. A proceeding for interim measures is likely to face the needs for celerity, which bother the weakest parts for their action. We shall also underline the advantages of a class action, which could overcome the financial issue of the lawsuit. Conversely, the legal security of business will bring us to foster a protection by a soft law system. First Part: The identification of the business-to-business adhesion contract. Second Part: The judicial treatment of business-to-business adhesion contracts.

Les distributeurs sont des intermédiaires économiques car ils offrent sur le marché des produits ou services conçus, fabriqués ou exécutés par d’autres (les fournisseurs). Cette recherche démontre que le degré de protection accordé par le droit positif aux différents distributeurs n’est pas corrélé à leur degré de dépendance aux fournisseurs. Les qualifications de la dépendance sont multiples, incertaines, incohérentes et parfois artificiellement restrictives ou extensives, en droit du travail comme en droit économique. Des distributeurs connaissant un même degré de dépendance à leur fournisseur peuvent être traités de façon différente sans justification au regard des fondements des règles considérées. Il existe ainsi des inégalités de traitement. Il est donc proposé un nouveau droit de la dépendance des distributeurs, plus cohérent et égalitaire. Celui-ci se traduirait par un statut légal des distributeurs remplaçant les multiples statuts spéciaux existants, traçant une frontière plus nette avec le droit du travail et conciliant les intérêts des distributeurs avec la liberté des fournisseurs d’organiser la distribution de leurs produits et services. Dépassant la notion trop restrictive de contrat et les conflits de qualification, ce statut viserait la relation de distribution et prévoirait un régime appréhendant la complexité et l’évolutivité de la dépendance des distributeurs grâce à l’information, à une garantie de revenus et différentes indemnités de fin de relation. / Distributors are economic intermediaries because they offer on the market goods and services produced or served by others (the suppliers). This research demonstrates that the degree of protection offered by the Law to the various distributors isn’t correlated with their degree of dependence towards suppliers. The qualifications of dependence are numerous, incoherent and sometimes artificially restrictive or extensive, in labour law as in business law. Distributors experiencing a same degree of dependence towards their supplier can be treated differently without any justification regarding the grounds of the rules in question. Hence, appear inequalities towards the Law. Therefore, new legal rules are suggested. They would take the form of a statute ruling distributors and replacing the numerous statutes in force at the present time. It would draw a clearer line between labour law and business law and conciliate the distributors’ interests with the freedom of suppliers to organize the distribution of their goods and services. Going other the too restrictive notion of contact and the conflicts between qualifications, this statute would rule the relation of distribution and contain rules comprehending the complex and changing nature of dependence. It would ensure sufficient information of distributors and offer them an income guarantee and various compensations when the relation is terminated.

La dialectique entre contrats d’Etat et développement durable existe, malgré une antinomie apparente. Elle s’appuie sur une interaction particulière qui s’est construite depuis l’origine, à travers les contrats d’Etat, instruments conventionnels singuliers et autour des nécessités politiques et économiques de l’époque, avec en toile de fond l’impératif de développement.Face aux évolutions sociales successives et l’absence d’arsenal juridique adapté, les contratsd’Etat se sont développés de façon spécifique entre dépendance, indépendance,interdépendance, hétéronomie et autonomie. En droit international des affaires, c’estprécisément à partir du contrat conçu comme un instrument normatif singulier et à travers sesinteractions avec le contexte extracontractuel au sein duquel il est amené à opérer quel’existence d’un droit du développement durable en matière de contrats d’Etat doit êtrefondée. Cela nécessite une autre vision du droit, sans cesse renouvelée et davantageappropriée aux réalités de notre siècle. / Common discussion points between sustainable development and State contracts exist, despite many visible contradictions. They are based on a particular interaction, built up from the beginning through State contracts, which are highly specific agreements and around political and economic necessities of the time, with the notion of development merely as a requirement in the background. Confronted with successive social changes and the lack of an appropriate judicial framework, State contracts developed in a particular way between dependence, independence, interdependence, heteronomy and autonomy. In international business law, the existence of a sustainable development law related to State contracts must be based precisely on contracts, seen as instruments able to set norms, and must benefit from contracts’interactions with a non-contractual environment. That requires another vision of law, constantly renewed and more adapted to current realities.

隨著資訊技術之快速發展及受到金融交易全球化之影響，在營運模式及法令遵循之需求下，使得銀行業將客戶個人資料跨境傳輸至其他國家之公務或非公務機關所產生之資料保護或對資訊隱私權衝擊等議題漸增。為調和不同國家間對於個人資料保護文化及規範程度之差異，各國及各國際組織間均致力於如何在不影響商業交易需要、個人資料隱私安全及資訊自由流通之前提下，經由適當法律規範對於資料管理者國際傳輸個人資料之行為，予以適當控管。 隱私權之概念雖起源於美國，惟現行各國對於個人資料國際傳輸保護規範仍以歐盟委員會於1995年發布之個人資料隱私保護指令（Directive 95/46/EC）最為重要且影響層面較大。在歐盟指令仍須各會員國將其轉化為國內法，始得有效執行之前提下，本研究以金融服務產業發展較為領先之國家—英國，以英國銀行業適用之個人資料國際傳輸保護規範為研究主題，所涉法規包括：歐盟指令、英國1998年資料保護法（Data Protection Act, DPA）及英國金融服務業適用之相關規範等。 研究結果發現，英國1998年資料保護法在參照歐盟指令之相關規範下，對於資料管理者將個人資料國際傳輸已訂有相關限制規定及如何符合相關豁免規定之作業流程及評估程序，英國專責資料保護之監理機關（資訊自由及保護委員會），並已依據歐盟指令，發布規定授權英國企業得採用標準契約範本及經其個案核准採用共同約束條款，顯示英國對於國際傳輸之個人資料已有一定程度之保障。惟如同歐盟委員會之研究報告所述，英國相對於歐盟其他會員國，並未將國際傳輸規範明訂於資料保護法之本文，對於當事人資訊隱私權保護之法律位階，仍有待加強。 不同於我國係於銀行法明定銀行對客戶資料之保密義務，英國法院認為銀行對於客戶資料之保密責任，原始存在於銀行與客戶間之契約。惟英國與我國相同於金融相關法令中僅針對銀行境外委外所涉之國際傳輸訂有相關監理規範（包括境外委外事先申請核准、申請程序及應檢附之文件），以透過銀行與委外服務供應商之委外契約，確保金融監理機關能跨國有效行使其監理權限，保護當事人之權益，至於銀行因非委外事項，將客戶資料跨境傳輸至其他國家時，仍應回歸適用資料保護法有關國際傳輸之相關規定。 本研究最後就我國與英國對於個人資料國際傳輸相關保護規範之比較結果發現，我國個人資料保護法雖已於99年修正發布（新個資法），但對於國際傳輸之限制規定，修法後雖已明定國際傳輸之定義及加重非公務機關違反國際傳輸規定之罰則，惟未修正其實質規範內容，仍僅授權中央目的事業主管機關於非公務機關有第21條所列四項情形之一時，得限制其進行國際傳輸。在新個資法下，非公務機關對於個人資料之國際傳輸，已無須取得目的事業主管機關登記，並取得執照，雖有利於資料之國際流通，惟為保護當事人個人資料於傳輸後之安全，我國是否尚須其他配套措施，以落實個人資料於國際傳輸層面之保障，值得深思。 本研究對於我國銀行業國際傳輸個人資料保護規範之主要建議，包括（1）宜透過各中央目的事業主管機關對被監理機構之監理及其與相關公益團體間之合作，以強化各界對於個人資料保護之重視，（2）國際傳輸之限制規定應予細緻化，並透過產業自治逐步達成個人資料保護之目的，（3）金融監理機關宜配合個人資料保護法之修正，訂定銀行業國際傳輸之作業規範，（4）宜透過租稅合作協定，在不違反我國個人資料保護法及銀行法之原則下，協助我國金融機構解決美國「外國帳戶稅收遵從法」之實施，衍生對於個人財務資訊隱私權及跨境傳輸個人資料保護之問題。

The legal historical development of fairness in the South African common law of contract is investigated in the context of the political, social and economic developments of the last four centuries. It emerges that the common law of contract is still dominated by the ideologies of individualism and economic liberalism which were imported from English law during the nineteenth century. Together with the theories of legal positivism and formalism which are closely related to parliamentary sovereignty and the classical rule of law, these ideals were transposed into the common law of contract through the classical model of contract law which emphasises freedom and sanctity of contract and promotes legal certainty. This approach resulted in the negation of the court’s equitable discretion and the limitation of good faith which sustain the social and economic inequalities that were created under colonialism and exacerbated under apartheid rule. In stark contrast, the modern human rights culture grounded in human dignity and aimed at the promotion of substantive equality led to the introduction of modern contract theory in other parts of the world. The introduction of the Constitution as grounded in human dignity and aimed at the achievement of substantive equality has resulted in a sophisticated jurisprudence on human dignity that reflects a harmonisation between its Western conception as based on Kantian dignity and ubuntu which provides an African understanding thereof. In this respect, ubuntu plays an important role in infusing the common law of contract with African values and in promoting substantive equality between contracting parties in line with modern contract theory. It is submitted that this approach to human dignity should result in the development of good faith into a substantive rule of the common law of contract which can be used to set aside an unfair contract term or the unfair enforcement thereof. / Private Law / LL. D.