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Showing 321 to 329 of 329 (0.041 seconds)Spelling suggestions: "subject:"sovereign"" "subject:"overeign""
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Suveränitetsvakuumet och oenigheter om EU-rättens företräde : En diskussion kring kommissionens underlåtenhet att föra fördragsbrottstalan / The sovereignty-vacuum and disagreements on the primacy of EU-law : A discussion on the commissions omission to start infringement proceduresLiljeström, Leo January 2023 (has links)
The European court of Justice (ECJ) has the stance that EU-law, within the confines of EU competence, has primacy over national law, regardless of its source, even if it’s the national constitutions. Although generally the ECJ:s stance is accepted, sometimes it is instead the EU that has had to indirectly (through inaction) accept the conclusions of the national constitutional courts. When this happens, it can however only be noticed as the EU commission’s decision to not start infringement proceedings against the member state, and as such it appears as a legal vacuum or absence of enforced law. Inside this vacuum there is lacking enforcement of EU-law, which the member states can use as a de facto exemption from EU-law to regain or uphold national sovereignty. Thus the member states can fill the vacuum by deciding cases on the basis of their own constitutional law rather than (the unenforced) EU-law. It appears to be an in EU-law unregulated transfer of sovereignty. This paper intends to shed light on possible problems that arise in this situation due to the lack of legality and certainty that ensues from these exemptions from EU-law being upheld through the inaction of the commission rather than positive legal regulation. I will also attempt to find a coherent model for the explanation of this seemingly contradictory situation, describing it as a “sovereignty-vacuum”, an opposing but related concept to the “exemption” of Carl Schmitt. Through use of Schmitt’s political theology, I attempt to find a solution to the problem of legality with an analogy to the concept of “mercy” and “forgiveness” in the context of constitutional law. Ultimately, I propose a solution de lege ferenda that these implicit exemptions from EU-law be written down as explicit exemptions.
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Studying the Opportunities of Blockchain Implementations in Electronic Transactions compared to the eIDAS Regulations / Undersöka möjligheterna för blockchain implementationer i elektroniska transaktioner jämfört med eIDAS regulationenHansson, Hanna January 2022 (has links)
The electronic identification regulation, eIDAS, and its trusted service providers are currently based on technologies that have been used for decades. The eIDAS and many others in the security industry have shown interest in newer technologies such as distributed ledgers and blockchain. This research looks into the current eIDAS regulation, its plans for future work, and how the current trusted systems could benefit from introducing blockchain into the solutions. Looking at new technologies is of importance to move forward but also making solutions more secure for the user with for example Self-Sovereign Identity solutions. The research was conducted through a literature review followed by interviews. A number of themes were identified to answer the research question. The findings were that blockchain is a viable technology to use but only if used in the right cases. A better understanding and knowledge of the technology is needed for new implementation to succeed and should not be rushed due to the hype of blockchain technology. / Se bif. fil
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Stress-Test Exercises and the Pricing of Very Long-Term Bonds / Tests de Résistance et Valorisation des Obligations de Très Long-TermeDubecq, Simon 28 January 2013 (has links)
La première partie de cette thèse introduit une nouvelle méthodologie pour la réalisation d’exercices de stress-tests. Notre approche permet de considérer des scénarios de stress beaucoup plus riches qu’en pratique, qui évaluent l’impact d’une modification de la distribution statistique des facteurs influençant les prix d’actifs, pas uniquement les conséquences d’une réalisation particulière de ces facteurs, et prennent en compte la réaction du gestionnaire de portefeuille au choc. La deuxième partie de la thèse est consacrée à la valorisation des obligations à maturité très longues (supérieure à 10 ans). La modélisation de la volatilité des taux de très long terme est un défi, notamment du fait des contraintes posées par l’absence d’opportunités d’arbitrage, et la plupart des modèles de taux d’intérêt en absence d’opportunités d’arbitrage impliquent un taux limite (de maturité infinie) constant. Le deuxième chapitre étudie la compatibilité du facteur "niveau", dont les variations ont un impact uniforme sur l’ensemble des taux modélisés, a fortiori les plus longs, avec l’absence d’opportunités d’arbitrage. Nous introduisons dans le troisième chapitre une nouvelle classe de modèle de taux d’intérêt, sans opportunités d’arbitrage, où le taux limite est stochastique, dont nous présentons les propriétés empiriques sur une base de données de prix d’obligations du Trésor américain. / In the first part of this thesis, we introduce a new methodology for stress-test exercises. Our approach allows to consider richer stress-test exercises, which assess the impact of a modification of the whole distribution of asset prices’ factors, rather than focusing as the common practices on a single realization of these factors, and take into account the potential reaction to the shock of the portfolio manager.
The second part of the thesis is devoted to the pricing of bonds with very long-term time-to-maturity (more than ten years). Modeling the volatility of very long-term rates is a challenge, due to the constraints put by no-arbitrage assumption. As a consequence, most of the no-arbitrage term structure models assume a constant limiting rate (of infinite maturity). The second chapter investigates the compatibility of the so-called "level" factor, whose variations have a uniform impact on the modeled yield curve, with the no-arbitrage assumptions. We introduce in the third chapter a new class of arbitrage-free term structure factor models, which allows the limiting rate to be stochastic, and present its empirical properties on a dataset of US T-Bonds.
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Societal cleavages and institutional change in Canada : retention, reform and removal of nominee councilsHicks, Bruce M. 12 1900 (has links)
En concevant que toute société a deux clivages dominants, l’un social et l’autre partisan, cette thèse développe une théorie sur le changement institutionnel. L’hypothèse initiale, selon laquelle les groupes sociaux créés par le premier clivage agiront pour restreindre le changement institutionnel et que le changement aura lieu lors de l’émergence d’un groupe partisan capable de croiser le clivage social, fut testée par les processus traçant les changements qui furent proposés et qui ont eu lieu au sein des conseils nominés en Amérique du Nord britannique. Ces conseils furent modifiés un bon nombre de fois, devenant les chambres secondaires de législatures provinciales avant d’être éventuellement abolies. La preuve supporte l’hypothèse, bien qu’il ne soit pas suffisant d’avoir un groupe partisan qui puisse croiser le clivage qui mène le changement : un débat partisan sur le changement est nécessaire. Ceci remet aussi en cause la théorie prédominante selon laquelle les clivages sociaux mènent à la formation de partis politiques, suggérant qu’il est plus bénéfique d’utiliser ces deux clivages pour l’étude des institutions. / By conceiving of any society as having two dominant cleavages, one ‘social’ and one ‘partisan’, this dissertation develops a theory on institutional change. The initial hypothesis that social groups created by the former will act to restrain institutional change and that change will occur when a partisan group emerges that can cross the social cleavage was tested by processes tracing the changes which were proposed and which occurred to the appointed councils established in British North America. These councils were modified a number of times, becoming second chambers in the provincial legislatures, and were eventually each abolished. The evidence found supports the hypothesis, though it is not sufficient to have a partisan group that can cross the cleavage drive change, a partisan debate over the change was necessary. This also challenges the prevailing theory that social cleavages lead to political party formation, suggesting the benefit of using these two cleavages for the study of institutions.
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Societal cleavages and institutional change in Canada : retention, reform and removal of nominee councilsHicks, Bruce M. 12 1900 (has links)
En concevant que toute société a deux clivages dominants, l’un social et l’autre partisan, cette thèse développe une théorie sur le changement institutionnel. L’hypothèse initiale, selon laquelle les groupes sociaux créés par le premier clivage agiront pour restreindre le changement institutionnel et que le changement aura lieu lors de l’émergence d’un groupe partisan capable de croiser le clivage social, fut testée par les processus traçant les changements qui furent proposés et qui ont eu lieu au sein des conseils nominés en Amérique du Nord britannique. Ces conseils furent modifiés un bon nombre de fois, devenant les chambres secondaires de législatures provinciales avant d’être éventuellement abolies. La preuve supporte l’hypothèse, bien qu’il ne soit pas suffisant d’avoir un groupe partisan qui puisse croiser le clivage qui mène le changement : un débat partisan sur le changement est nécessaire. Ceci remet aussi en cause la théorie prédominante selon laquelle les clivages sociaux mènent à la formation de partis politiques, suggérant qu’il est plus bénéfique d’utiliser ces deux clivages pour l’étude des institutions. / By conceiving of any society as having two dominant cleavages, one ‘social’ and one ‘partisan’, this dissertation develops a theory on institutional change. The initial hypothesis that social groups created by the former will act to restrain institutional change and that change will occur when a partisan group emerges that can cross the social cleavage was tested by processes tracing the changes which were proposed and which occurred to the appointed councils established in British North America. These councils were modified a number of times, becoming second chambers in the provincial legislatures, and were eventually each abolished. The evidence found supports the hypothesis, though it is not sufficient to have a partisan group that can cross the cleavage drive change, a partisan debate over the change was necessary. This also challenges the prevailing theory that social cleavages lead to political party formation, suggesting the benefit of using these two cleavages for the study of institutions.
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A phenomenological study of an emerging financial value ecosystem: based on distributed ledger technology and novel peer to eer game structure / Ucwaningo olugxile ezigamekweni okuhlangatshezwane nazo maqondana neekhosistimu efufusayo yobunani-mali: olusekelwe phezu kwe-distributed ledger technology Kanye ne-novel peer-to-peer game structureCrafford, Francois 02 1900 (has links)
Abstracts in English, Zulu and Xhosa / The central research issue in this study is the third morphing of economies due to the externally available intelligent building blocks of technology. More specifically, it is anticipated that the widespread use of distributed ledger technology will transform the workings of organisations to such a degree that they will cease to exist in their current form. Hence, the use of distributed ledger technology is not merely a tame management problem; it poses a wicked strategic problem.
Furthermore, natural explanations add to the confusion in relation to what managers should do with distributed ledger technology. A transcendental phenomenological attitude is required to transcend the multitude of natural explanations. Phenomenology is both the philosophy and method employed in this study, which questions what human engagement in the world is about. More specifically in this study engagement with distributed ledger technology. This study closes this gap in knowledge by giving an accurate description of the essence of the distributed value ecosystem phenomenon.
The study makes a contribution to more coherent and fundamental understanding the essences of the distributed value ecosystem phenomenon is the nature of the relationship patterns that participants hold to distributed ledger technology.
The central factual finding is the nature and pattern of these relationships is transactional and circular.
The pattern preferred by most organisations is the bounded binary transactional pattern. Organisations seek primarily to have power over the socially complex aspects in transacting. However, the bounded binary transactional pattern may become an unbalanced and unfair value-subtract relationship over time. The response to unbalanced binary bounded value relationships is the unbounded transactional pattern, which gives participants greater autonomy and privacy pseudonymity, but not the transparency that is essential to transact seamlessly.
The third value relationship pattern and novel idea presented is the folded value relationship pattern in which participants balance conflicts over socially complex aspects in relation to self and others by meeting narrow micro-level near interaction conditions. This is a more folded, novel strategic game that participants can pick. The key implication for society and organisations is that it presents an alternative approach to dealing with conflict in socially complex value relationships. In essence, with the folded transactional pattern, participants seek to trade up value relationships in relation to self and with others, as opposed to making value relationship trade-offs or sacrifices that lead to either compromises in relation to self or dominance over others. However, the practical managerial implication is truly folded value relationship pattern is not easy to create and is rare. / Umbandela ophambili wophando kwesi sifundo kukuzotywa ngokutsha kwesithathu kwezoqoqosho
ngenxa yobukho bezakhi zobuchwepheshe ezinobukrelekrele. Eyona nto ingundoqo yeyokuba
kucingelwa ukuba ukusetyenziswa kakhulu kobuchwepheshe bokubhala iingxelo mali buya
kuyiguqula indlela asebenza ngayo amaqumrhu, ade ayeke ukusebenza ngale ndlela enza ngayo
ngoku. Ukusetyenziswa kobuchwepheshe bokusasaza iingxelo zogcino mali (ngesiNgesi
kusetyenziswa isishunqulelo esithi DLT) akuyongxakana nje yolawulo; kuyingxaki enkulu
nekhohlakeleyo.
Ngaphaya koko, iinkcazelo ezikhoyo zongeza ukubhideka malunga neyona nto emele ukwenziwa
ngabaphathi ngobu buchwepheshe bokusasaza iingxelo zogcino mali. Into efunekayo kukusebenzisa
indlela yophando ngokuphicotha amava nokufuna ukuqonda indlela acinga ngayo umntu, ngakumbi
kumba omalunga nobuchwepheshe bokusasaza iingxelo zogcino mali. Esi sifundo sivala isikhewu
solwazi esikhoyo ngokunika inkcazelo echanekileyo ngalo mbandela wokusasazwa kokuxabiseka
kwentsebenziswano yendalo nomntu.
Esi sifundo sinceda ekuqondeni iziseko zombandela wokusasazwa kokuxabiseka kwentsebenziswano
yendalo nomntu neepatheni zolwalamano lwabathathi nxaxheba kwicandelo lobuchwepheshe
bokusasaza iingxelo zogcino mali.
Eyona nto ingundoqo efumanisekayo kukuba ubume nepatheni yolu lwalamano iquka
intsebenziswano yorhwebo kwaye ifana nomjikelo.
Ipatheni ekhethwa ngamaqumrhu amaninzi yileyo yentsebenziswano ephakathi kwesibini.
Amaqumrhu afuna tanci ukuba nolawulo kwimiba enzima yezentlalo xa erhwebelana. Noxa kunjalo,
ipatheni yokurhwebelana ngezibini isenokudala ukungalingani nokuqhathana ngokuhamba
kwexesha. Usabelo kulwalamano lwezibini olungenalingano yiphatheni yorhwebelwano
olungabekelwanga mida, apho abathathi nxaxheba bekwazi ukuzithathela izigqibo ekhusini
bengazichazi ukuba bangoobani, nto leyo inqanda ukusebenza ekuhleni nokufunekayo
ekusebenzisaneni ngaphandle kwamagingxigingxi.
Ipatheni yesithathu kwixabiso lolwalamano kulapho ulwalamano lusongiwe, apho abathathi
nxaxheba belungelelanisa iingxabano ezingemiba yezentlalo enzima ngokufezekisa iimeko ezilula
nezincinane. Oku kufana nomdlalo osongeneyo nolicebo lobulumko onokukhethwa ngabathathi
nxaxheba. Okubalulekileyo kukuba le yindlela eyenye enokukhawulelana neengxwabangxwaba
eluntwini nakumaqumrhu. Eneneni, kwipatheni yentsebenziswano esongeneyo, abathathi nxaxheba
bazama ukutshintsha ulwalamano oluphakathi komntu nabanye, endaweni yokuncama izinto ezithile
ezinokukhokelela kwilahleko okanye ekonganyelweni ngabanye. Noxa kunjalo, ipatheni
yolwalamano olusongeneyo kulwalamano lwabalawuli ayinto ilula kwaye inqabile. / Udaba olungumgogodla walolu cwaningo wukuguquka kwesithathu kweminotho ngenxa yamandla
namakhono obuchwepheshe besimanjemane atholakala ngaphandle kwenhlangano.
Ngokuqondileyo, kubhekeke ukuthi ukusetshenziswa kakhulu kwe-distributed ledger technology
kusiguqule kakhulu isimo-sakhiwo sezinhlangano kanye nendlela ezisebenza ngayo, kangangukuthi
zigcine sezingabonakali neze ukuthi zike zaba kulesi simo-sakhiwo ezikusona njengamanje. Ngakhoke
ukusetshenziswa kwe-distributed ledger technology akuyona neze inkinga elula futhi
abangayixazulula kalula abaphathi; kepha kuyinkinga eyinkimbinkimbi futhi eyimpicabadala
okungelula nakancane ukuyixazulula.
Ngaphezu kwalokho, izincazelo zemvelo ziyengeza phezu kokudideka okuphathelene nalokho
okumele kwenziwe ngabaphathi maqondana ne-distributed ledger technology. Ukuze kudlulelwe
ngale kwenqwabanqwaba yezincazelo zemvelo ezikhona kudingeka indlela-kucabanga nendlelakubuka
evulekile yokuqonda ulwazi oluphathelene nezimo kanye nezigameko okuhlangatshezwane
nazo noma okudlulwe kuzona. Ifenomeloji iyikho kokubili ifilosofi kanye nendlela-kusebenza
esetshenzisiwe kulolu cwaningo, okuphonsa umbuzo mayelana nokuthi kuphathelene nani
ukuxhumana kanye nokubandakanywa kwabantu emhlabeni, ikakhulukazi maqondana
nokubandakanywa okuphathelene ne-distributed ledger technology. Lolu cwaningo luvala igebe
lokungabi khona kolwazi ngokuthi lunikeze incazelo enembayo yomongo we-distributed value
ecosystem.
Ucwaningo luyalekelela futhi lufake isandla ekutholakaleni kokuqonda okuhle nokuhleleke kahle
futhi okuyisisekelo komongo we-distributed value ecosystem okungukuthi lokhu kuwuhlobo
lwamaphethini obudlelwano obuboniswa ngababambiqhaza maqondana ne-distributed ledger
technology.
Umphumela osemqoka kakhulu futhi oyiqiniso otholakale ocwaningweni wukuthi ubunjalo kanye
nephethini yalobu budlelwano ibandakanya izinhloso zokuzizuzela okuthile futhi okungubudlelwano
obusasiyingi.
Iphethini encanyelwa yiningi lezinhlangano yi-bounded binary transactional pattern. Izinhlangano
zihlose ikakhulukazi ukuba namandla phezu kwezinto ezithile ezinobunkimbinkimbi emphakathini
lapho zenza umsebenzi wazo. Kodwa-ke ngokuhamba kwesikhathi i-bounded binary transactional
pattern kungenzeka ibonise ubudlelwano obungenakho ukulingana futhi obuchemile
obungenabugugu. Impendulo yokubhekana nobudlelwano obungama-unbalanced binary bounded
value relationships yi-unbounded transactional pattern, enikeza ababambiqhaza ukukhululeka
nokuzimela okukhudlwana kanye nobumfihlo bokuthi bangazidaluli noma baziveze ukuthi
bangobani, kodwa-ke lokhu akubanikezi ukusebenza ngendlela esobala okuyinto edingekayo
ekusebenzeni ngaphandle kwezihibe.
I-third value relationship pattern kanye nomqondo ophusile owethulwayo yi-folded value
relationship pattern lapho ababambiqhaza beqinisekisa ukuthi kunokulingana phakathi
kokungqubuzana noma udweshu oluphathelene nezinto eziyinkimbinkimbi emphakathini
maqondana nabo uqobo kanye nabanye abantu, ngokuthi bahlangabezane nama-narrow micro-level near-interaction conditions. Lokhu kuwumdladlwana ofongqekile wesimanjemanje futhi okhethekile nosemqoka ongasetshenziswa ngababambiqhaza. Umthelela osemqoka walokhu emphakathini nasezinhlanganweni wukuthi lokhu kuhlinzeka ngendlela ehlukile yokubhekana nokungqubuzana nodweshu kubudlelwano obuyinkimbinkimbi emphakathini. Empeleni, ku-folded transactional pattern, ababambiqhaza bahlose ukuthola okungcono kubudlelwano phakathi kwabo bona uqobo lwabo kanye nabanye abantu esikhundleni sokwakha ubudlelwano lapho izinhlangothi zonke zithola ukushintshisana okulinganayo noma ukuzidela okuthile maqondana nobudlelwano, okuyinto eholela ekutheni kube nokuvumelana phakathi kwezinhlangothi okuhambisana nokuzidela komuntu uqobo lwakhe noma-ke ukukhonya phezu kwabanye. Kodwa-ke umthelela walokho oqondene nabaphathi wukuthi akulula neze ukwakha i-folded value relationship pattern yoqobo futhi lokhu kuyivela kancane. / Business Management / D. Com. (Business Management)
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Sovereignty, Peacekeeping, and the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF), Suez 1956-1967: Insiders’ PerspectivesHilmy, Hanny 13 February 2015 (has links)
This research is concerned with the complex and contested relationship between the sovereign prerogatives of states and the international imperative of defusing world conflicts. Due to its historical setting following World War Two, the national vs. international staking of claims was framed within the escalating imperial-nationalist confrontation and the impending “end of empire”, both of which were significantly influenced by the role Israel played in this saga. The research looks at the issue of “decolonization” and the anti-colonial struggle waged under the leadership of Egypt’s President Nasser. The Suez War is analyzed as the historical event that signaled the beginning of the final chapter in the domination of the European empires in the Middle East (sub-Saharan decolonization followed beginning in the early 1960s), and the emergence of the United States as the new major Western power in the Middle East.
The Suez experience highlighted a stubborn contest between the defenders of the concept of “sovereign consent” and the advocates of “International intervention”. Both the deployment of the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) and its termination were surrounded by controversy and legal-political wrangling. The role of UNEF and UN peacekeeping operations in general framed the development of a new concept for an emerging international human rights law and crisis management. The UNEF experience, moreover, brought into sharp relief the need for a conflict resolution component for any peace operation. International conflict management, and human rights protection are both subject to an increasing interventionist international legal regime. Consequently, the traditional concept of “sovereignty” is facing increasing challenge.
By its very nature, the subject matter of this multi-dimensional research involves historical, political and international legal aspects shaping the research’s content and conclusions. The research utilizes the experience and contributions of several key participants in this pioneering peacekeeping experience. In the last chapter, recommendations are made –based on all the elements covered in the research- to suggest contributions to the evolving UN ground rules for international crisis intervention and management. / Graduate / hilmyh@uvic.ca
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Les Etats et la protection internationale de l'environnement : la question du changement climatique. / States and the international environmental protection : the climate change issue.Ouro-Bodi, Ouro-Gnaou 24 November 2014 (has links)
Le changement climatique est devenu aujourd’hui le fléau environnemental qui préoccupe etmobilise le plus la communauté internationale. L’aboutissement de cette mobilisation générale reste sansdoute la mise en place du régime international de lutte contre le changement climatique dont la Conventioncadredes Nations Unies sur le changement climatique et le Protocole de Kyoto constituent les basesjuridiques. Ce régime innove en ce qu’il fixe des engagements quantifiés de réduction des émissions de gaz àeffet de serre pour les États pollueurs, mais aussi en ce qu’il instaure des mécanismes dits de « flexibilité »dont la mise en oeuvre est assortie d’un contrôle original basé sur un Comité dit de « l’observance ». Mais, endépit de toute cette production normative, il est regrettable de constater aujourd’hui que le régimeinternational du climat est un véritable échec. En effet, si la mobilisation des États ne fait aucun doute, enrevanche, les mêmes États qui ont volontairement accepté de s’engager refusent délibérément d’honorer leursengagements pour des raisons essentiellement politiques, économiques et stratégiques. Ce travail ambitionnedonc de lever le voile sur les causes de cet échec en dressant un bilan mitigé de la première périoded’engagement de Kyoto qui a pris fin en 2012, et propose des perspectives pour un régime juridique duclimat post-Kyoto efficient et efficace, en mesure d’être à la hauteur des enjeux. / Climate change has become the scourge environmental concern and mobilizes more theinternational community. The outcome of this mobilization remains probably the implementation ofinternational climate change regime for which the Climate Convention and the Kyoto Protocol are the legalbases. This system is innovative in that it sets quantified emission reduction commitments for greenhouse gasemissions (GHG) for polluters States, but also in that it establishes mechanisms known as of “flexibility”whose implementation is accompanied by a control based on a Committee known as of “compliance”. Butdespite all this normative production, it is regrettable that today the international climate regime is a realfailure. Indeed, if the mobilization of states is no doubt, however, the same states that have voluntarily agreedto engage deliberately refuse to honour their commitments for essentially political, economic and strategicreasons. This work therefore aims to shed light on the causes of this failure by developing a mixed record ofthe first Kyoto commitment ended period in 2012, and offers prospects for a legal regime of the post-Kyotoclimate and efficient, able to be up to the challenges.
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Narratives of governing : rationalization, responsibility and resistance in social workLauri, Marcus January 2016 (has links)
For many years, Sweden has had a reputation for having a comprehensive and women friendly welfare state. However, as in many other European countries during the past few decades, the organization and governing of welfare has undergone profound changes. Through interviews with social workers and the application of theories of governmentality, this thesis analyzes the expressions and consequences of such current organization and governing. One result is that the introduction of meticulous documentation practices of social workers contact with clients, regulate their interaction and constitute a control over both client and social worker. Another result is that the current organization fragments labor and awards more authority to managers, which functions to produce loyalty to the organization and management, rather than clients. This is expressed in demands not to voice protest, as it is said to create a bad mood. It is also expressed in demands to spend as little as possible on clients; short duration of treatment, preference for outpatient treatment and by making it difficult to receive financial support. This austerity is legitimized through the intermeshing of different ideals; budget awareness, evidence that supports short and outpatient treatment and that clients in order to change their course of life should to be allowed or coerced into taking individual responsibility. Another important finding is that the current governing and organization of social work produce distance and detachment, and thus discourage caring subjects. This is a complex process in which an assemblage of different techniques and rationalities undermines the cultivation of a relationship between social worker and client. 1) The ideal of evidence-based practice favors rigid methods over a flexible and holistic approach. 2) Ideals of rationality, closely connected to notions of masculinity and professionalism, value objectivity and devalue and deter the surfacing of emotions. 3) Meticulous practices of documentation reduce the amount of time available to meet clients. 4) Ideals and particular methods designed to promote individual responsibility in clients legitimize social workers distancing themselves from clients’ dependency and needs. 5) A division of labor, in either assessment or treatment, reduces time spent with clients for those who work with assessment and ultimately engage in the rationing of resources. 6) Standardized digital templates, installed to aid in assessments, regulate and proceduralize interactions with the client. 7) Austerity, heavy workloads, individualized responsibility and stress further accentuate distance, as detachment becomes a means to cope with arduous working conditions. The transformation of social work described above produces alienation and a fragmentation of social workers’ collective subjects. Simultaneously, an ethos of caring makes some social workers work extra hard to provide for clients, which ultimately covers for flaws in the system. Although such an ethos of caring allows for the further exploitation of social workers, it is also understood as a means of resistance, which in turn also forms the basis for organized resistance. / Sverige har ett internationellt rykte för att ha en omfattande och kvinnovänlig välfärd. Även om riktigheten i en sådan uppfattning sedan länge ifrågasatts har på senare år, likt i många andra Europeiska länder, det svenska välfärdssystemet genomgått en omfattande förändring i avseende på dess räckvidd, men också dess organisering och styrning. Fokus för denna studie är just denna organisering och styrning, och mer specifikt, hur detta påverkar ett av välfärdens kanske mest centrala område: socialt arbete. Genom att intervjua socialarbetare undersöks i denna studie uttryck för och konsekvenser av en sådan förändring, bland annat genom att undersöka hur könsbundna föreställningar och förväntningar är sammanflätade med det sociala arbetets organisering och styrning. I studien konstateras att socialarbetare erfar att deras arbete genomgått omfattande förändringar, vilket kopplas ihop med både organiseringen och styrningen av det sociala arbetet. Detta uttrycks både i de ideal som kringgärdar arbetet men också i dominerande arbetssätt. En sådan förändring är införandet av omfattande dokumentationsprocedurer av socialarbetarens arbete och kontakt med klienter, vilket medför att kontakten med klienterna blir ytligare. Dokumentationsprocedurerna utgör också en sorts kontroll av både klienterna och socialarbetarna själva. En annan förändring som konstateras är att nya organisationsmodeller och en förändrad ledarskapskultur skapar förväntningar på socialarbetarna att vara lojala med organisationen och ledningen snarare än klienterna. Bland annat utrycks detta genom förväntningar att inte protestera och skapa dålig stämning på arbetsplatsen, men också genom uttalade krav att spendera så lite resurser som möjligt på klienterna; korta behandlingstider, öppenvårdsalternativ och orimligt hårda krav för att få ekonomiskt bistånd. Detta legitimeras genom sammanväxningen av flera olika ideal; budgetmedvetenhet, att klienter inte mår bra av långa institutionsvistelser, men också att klienterna ska tillåtas eller bör tvingas att klara att sig själva. Ett av studiens huvudresultat är att den nuvarande organiseringen och styrningen av socialt arbete skapar avstånd och likgiltighet. Genom flera sammankopplade ideal och arbetssätt styrs dagens socialarbetare till att bry sig mindre om de klienter de möter. På så sätt undermineras förutsättningarna för framväxten av en djup relation mellan socialarbetare och klient; 1) Idealet och kravet att socialarbetare ska arbeta utifrån evidens, det vill säga metoder och förhållningssätt som i speciellt utformade utvärderingsmodeller visat sig ha effekt, gör att väl strukturerade och rigida metoder ges företräde. Denna instrumentalisering underminerar ett flexibelt, relationsorienterat och helhetsfokuserat sätt att arbeta. Dessutom gör evidensidealets fokus på enskilda individer och avgränsade utvärderingstider att mer samhällsinriktat kritiskt och långsiktigt inriktat arbete undermineras. 2) Ett rationalitetsideal, tätt sammanbundet med föreställningar om professionalitet och maskulinitet, värderar objektivitet och förmågan att frikoppla socialarbetarens egna känslor från sitt arbete. Detta maskuliniserade professionsideal innebär att empati och solidaritet med klienten undergrävs. 3) Omfattande krav på olika former av dokumentation av det sociala arbetet gör att tiden som socialarbetaren har till sitt förfogande för att besöka och att ha möten med klienten blir knapp. 4) Ett allmänt samhällsideal kring individuellt ansvar och en särskild arbetsmetod (motiverande samtal) som många socialarbetare förväntas lära sig, framhäver klientens eget ansvar för och vilja till förändring. Detta legitimerar ett avståndstagande från klientens behov av hjälp och stöd enligt logiken ”du måste klara detta själv”. 5) En vanligt förekommande uppdelning av socialarbetarnas arbetsuppgifter i en så kallad beställar-utförarmodell gör att vissa socialsekreterare arbetar med hjälp och stöd, medan andra arbetar med bedömningar av klienters behov. De senare, som också har inflytande över resurstilldelning, blir med en sådan organisering av arbetet alltmer frikopplade från den stödjande och hjälpande verksamheten och kontakten med klienten. 6) Standardiserade digitala bedömningsinstrument, skapade för att på ett likvärdigt sätt bedöma klienters behov och dokumentera det sociala arbetet, reglerar och instrumentaliserar kontakten med klienter. 7) Tunga arbetsbördor, individualiserat ansvar och stress, bidrar ytterligare till att skapa avstånd och likgiltighet eftersom det för vissa utgör ett sätt att genomleva en ohållbar arbetssituation. En allmän åtstramning av socialtjänstens resurstilldelning förstås som en viktig orsak till behovet av att skapa ovan distansmekanismer. Men distansen hänger också ihop med en tendens till ett återupplivande av en tidigare dominerande förståelse av marginalisering och sociala problem; där människors nöd ses som ett utslag av dålig karaktär och ett resultat av dåliga individuella val. De förändringar av det sociala arbetets premisser som beskrivits ovan gör att socialarbetarna alltmer görs främmande inför sitt arbete – de alieneras. Detta främmandegörande uttrycks genom att inte kunna identifiera sig med arbetet självt, sina kollegor eller med sig själv. Ett sådant främmandegörande underminerar, eller fragmentiserar, både relationen till klienten, men också en känsla av gemenskap med andra socialarbetare. En gemenskap som kan utgöra ett ”vi” och ligga till grund för att ställa krav, protestera och göra motstånd mot avhumaniserande ideal och reformer. På så vis är främmandegörandet inte bara en konsekvens av dagens organisering och styrning, utan också något som fyller en viktig funktion för en sådan styrning och organisering, och genomförandet av en allmän åtstramning i socialpolitiken. Samtidigt som dagens organisering och styrning av socialt arbete är främmandegörande, slår vissa socialarbetare knut på sig själva och arbetar extra hårt för att täcka upp för systemets brister och krympande resurser, för att trots det svåra läget ändå försöka ge det stöd som de upplever att klienten behöver. Ett sådant historiskt förankrat femininiserat omsorgsideal, dvs känslor av ansvar och empati inför behövande och en ilska inför oförrätter, utgör därmed på samma gång grund för en fördjupad exploatering av socialarbetarna, och ett vardagligt motstånd mot rådande system. I ett läge när flera upplever att kollegialiteten som grund för motstånd på arbetsplatserna underminerats, utgör ett sådant omsorgsideal samtidigt också grunden för organiserat motstånd utanför arbetsplatsen, bortom chefernas insyn, kontroll och härskartekniker. Medan nuvarande styrningssystem underminerar ett visst sorts motstånd, uppstår samtidigt grunden för nya.
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